Iran Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies ISSN: 0578-6967 (Print) 2396-9202 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rirn20 Excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta First Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Graveyard, 1997?2000 S.M.S. Sajjadi, F. Foruzanfar , R. Shirazi & S. Baghestani To cite this article: S.M.S. Sajjadi, F. Foruzanfar , R. Shirazi & S. Baghestani (2003) Excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta First Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Graveyard, 1997?2000, Iran, 41:1, 21-97 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2003.11834625 Published online: 23 Mar 2017. Submit your article to this journal View related articles Citing articles: 2 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rirn20 Download by: [Australian Catholic University] Date: 25 October 2017, At: 03:22 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA FIRST PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE EXCAVATIONS OF THE GRAVEYAFUD, 1997-2000 By S.M.S. Sajjadi (With contributions by F. Foruzanfar, R. Shirazi and S. Baghestani) Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation and University of Sistan and Baluchistan until 1978, obtaining brilliant results, which have already been published. 3 The second cycle of investigations, by ICHO, began in 1997 and is still ongoing. 4 The Iranian Archaeological Expedition began its work by studying the graveyard in 1997. During the third campaign, in 1999, the Monumental Area was examined, while the fourth campaign, in 2000, saw the excavation of the eastern portion of the Eastern Residential Area. Finally, during the sixth campaign, which lasted from October to December 2002, the work was extended to the north-western area of the site, close to the Craftsman Quarters. s The graveyard was discovered quite fortuitously in 1972 (Piperno 1977: 137), and was excavated until1978 under the direction of M. Piperno (Piperno & Tosi 1974; Piperno 1977, 1979, 1986: Piperno & Salvatori l983).1t has been estimated to cover an area of 20-25 ha. The Italian mission excavated an area of almost 3,000 sq.m. uncovering about 230 graves. On the basis of the concentration and density of the graves, approximately one in every 12 sq.m., the graveyard has been estimated to contain about 18,000 graves (Bonora eta/. 2000: 495). 6 The graveyard is located in the south-western portion of the site in a uniform and alluvial terrain, where there are, apparently, no other archaeological remains. This area is separated from the urban part by a large and deep alluvial and unifom'l drain. The graveyard is divided into three main sections; northern, central and southern parts. The excavations of the Italian expedition were mainly carried out in the northern and central parts, with some scattered trenches in other directions (Piperno 1977: 115). The Iranian Expedition concentrated its work mainly in the central part with a few limited test trenches in the northern and southern sections. The ground surface of the northern section of the graveyard contains tiny gravels, mainly covered by a layer of salty terrain mixed with soft sand. Below this surface level, there is a layer of solidified crust of sandclay and salt, of approximately 15-20 em., lying above Shahr-i Sokhta (Burnt City), with its exceptional extension of c. 151 ha., is located 56 km. south of Zabol on the road that leads to Zahedan in the province of Sistan and Baluchistan (Fig. 1), one of the most arid areas in the eastern part of the Iranian Plateau (Biscione eta/ 1977: 74). The city owes its existence during the fourth and third millennium B.C. to the Hyrmand River, and the site, among the largest proto-historical ones of the whole Iranian plateau, is found on the highest point of the northern part of its ancient delta, on the strip of the Ram Rud terrace. 1 Almost 120 ha. of the site are covered with different cultural materials, mostly pottery fragments, with a high concentration in the eastern section. The site reached its peak extension during period II, at almost 80 ha. (ibid., 81-82). The area of the Burnt City has been divided into three main parts by the Italian Expedition (ibid.), although a more detailed division takes this number to five: l. The Eastern Residential Area, located on the highest point of the site. 2. The Great Central Area, or Central Quarters, separated from the western, southern and eastern areas by deep depressions. 3. The Craftsman Quarters, found in the north-western part of the site. 4. The Monumental Area, located east of the Craftsman Quarters with several high hills representing different architectural buildings (Mariani 1990). 5. The Graveyard Area, which occupies the southwestern part of the site covering almost 25 ha. The estimated number of graves ranges between 25000 and 40000 (Fig. 2). The site was first discovered and investigated by Sir Aurel Stein in the early decades of the last century. 2 In 1967 a group of archaeologists of IsMEO (now IsiAO), under the direction of Maurizio Tosi, began new extensive excavations and investigations (Jung 2001: XVIII). The first and immediate findings were surprising, and the Italian Expedition continued working 21 22 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 6l , IIIIJLake .................... Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 ... 0. - Seasonal swamp -Swamps f-~::-1 Recent Delta 0 Iran ? ........, и-и-и- ____ и-и-. ., Protohistorical Delta Protohistorical sites ..- и............. Fig. I. Sistan: Shahr-i Sokhta and Dahaneh-ye Qolaman (Modified afier Fairservis 1961). EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 23 MONUMENTAL AREA CRAFI'SMEN QUARTERS Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 CENTRAL QUARTERS RESIDENTIAL AREA GRAVEYARD BURNT BUILDING AREA N ... ... ... ... FLINT/CHERT PRODUCTION AREAS ... ... II 0 II II tII SETTLEMENT AREAS IIIII II 1:1:111 GRAVEYARD = CRAFTSMEN QUARTERS F?:_-:;:;.:; FLINT/CHERT PRODUCTION AREAS Fig.2. Shahr-i Sokhta (modified after Mariani 1989). SOOm JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 24 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 another layer of solid clay. The depth of the graves in this part of the graveyard is between 80 and 100 em. The central portion of the graveyard differs from the other parts, as its surface is covered by a 25-30 em. layer of middle sized gravel. Below this level lies a very soft sand layer, deposited on a hard and solidified gravel layer mixed with salt. The graves of this section are found at this depth. Graves discovered within this solidified layer are usually badly, damaged and their recovery is difficult, however those found in the soft sand layer below this level, are well preserved. RECENT EXCAVATIONS AT THE GRAVEYARD During the campaigns from 1997 to 2000, a total of 19 squares, c. 880 sq.m., were excavated in different parts and directions of the graveyard, bringing to light a total of 13 7 graves. 7 In order to find out the boundaries of the graveyard, square IRS was opened in the most northern part, while squares BIT and GTS were opened in the south and south-western parts. The ground of the graveyard in the northern section has a gentle slope linked to a deep gully cut, and after the rain the water quickly ofiloads, and evaporation is extremely fast. On the surface of the terrain of this section, a thick and solidified crust has formed. Salt and other sediments have badly damaged the skeletal remains and the grave goods of this section. Consequently, the state of preservation of the graves in this part of the graveyard is not satisfying. Several squares were examined, including square GTS in the southern part of the graveyard, next to square GIT, that had already been excavated by the Italian expedition. We also examined the small square BIT, found in one of the highest points of the south-western part of the graveyard, near the dry bed of the Hamun Lake. Finally, two more squares, HMY with one grave, and HRJ with four graves, in the south and in the south-west, but very near the Central Section, were also examined. The third and main section investigated is close to the northern part of the graveyard, named as the central section due to the number and variety of graves, which are greater than those of other sections. The main squares of this section are IUA, IUK, IUF, lUG and IUL. The ground surface is flat and lacks any kind of cultural material. Here are the most interesting graves, from a structural point of view and with the best furnishings. Moreover, these graves and grave goods are better preserved than those on the northern section. This part of TABLE I. Excavated trenches 1997-2000. Trench/ Square BTT GTS HMY HRJ HTR HYE HYJ HYN IPB IPL IRS IUA IUB IUC IUF lUG IUK Year of Trench. No. Area sq.m. Excavation 1997 2100 6.25 I997 2000 25 I997 1800 25 I997 I900 25 1998 2700 25 1998-2000 2500 IOO 2000 2900 6.25 1998 2600 25 1998 2300 25 1998 2200 6.25 1997 1100 30 1997-2000 1700 100 1997 1200 25 1997 1300 25 1998 2800 100 1997-98 1400 100 1997, 1999-2000 1600 100 IUL NAB 1997-98 1998 1500 2400 100 6.25 No. of Graves I I I 3 4 I7 4 3 3 0 3 19 2 2 13 19 17 No. of Skeletons I 5 I 3 6 17 4 3 6 0 4 19 2 2 13 25 17 22 2 28 2 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA EJ 1412 1416 @ 1410 CJ 1413 25 1403ab"'@ ~ ~ 1402 0 1405 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 ~406 ~ ~ ~~ 140B.ab @ 1409 1414 <.._p ~Gf? '~' 0 1415 1407 c« 1400 1400.a 1400.b-c 1404.ab a. lUG Square 1506 [Д r; 1513 ~[58 (:::3 "" 0 "" G \.'J., ,.,. ~ ~ c:.:-~ ,':'~ 0 N 1504 @ «@~ ,., v r.J@ '~ ~'~Д« v 1503 1515 1517 1502 1602 1512 1512a 1512b 505 b. IUL Square 2m -~=~ Fig. 3. Graves at Shahr-i Sokhta. Q Typel 8Type2 9 Type4 0 Type9 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 26 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES the graveyard contains both archaic and late graves. The excavations in the central part of the graveyard show that this section, particularly during the middle of the third millennium, was the most important and wealthy one of the graveyard. It has already been mentioned that during the 1997-2000 campaigns a total of 19 trenches with areas ranging from 6.25 to 100 sq.m. were excavated. One of these, IPL (6.25 sq.m.) was empt):'. The trenches with at least one grave are IUA, IUF, IUd, IUL, IUK and HYE, each one measuring 100 sq.m.; IRS, 30 sq.m.; HTR, HYN, IPB, IUB, IUC, HMY, HRJ and GTS, 25 sq.m.; IPL, BTT, HYJ and NAB, 6.25 sq.m. (Fig. 3). Grave Structures Five different types of grave structure were found during the first year (Piperno & Tosi 1974: 125-26). Later, this number was extended to eight (Piperno 1986, Tavola XV). In addition, a ninth type was discovered during the second phase of excavations by the Iranian expedition8 (Fig. 4). The main types of graves are: Simple pits. This grave type can have different geometrical lay-outs of rectangular, circular and oval shapes; often there is no distinguishable shape. They are dug into the ground at a depth that ranges from a few em. to more than 150 em. Because of erosion, it is often hard to detect the original shape, depth, other measurements and the correct orientation. Generally, the skeleton and the objects are found in the same level, next to each other, but there are a few exceptions, with the objects and the inhumed body set at different levels. A total of 40 graves of Shahr-i Sokhta belong to this type. Except for four graves having more than one skeleton, all the other simple pits contain only one. The average number of grave goods ranges from 0 to 12 with the exception ofiUA 1707 with 48 objects. Chronologically, 6 graves belong to period I, 14 to period II, 1 to period III, 3 to period IV and 16 graves are undetermined (Fig. 5: a). 2 Bipartite pits. This grave type is similar to the previous one; the main difference being a mudbrick wall consisting of one to eight rows of mudbricks which divide the pit into two different parts. Human bodies and grave goods are placed on one side of the pit, while the other section, except in rare cases, i.e. IUA.l709, remains empty. There is no evidence to show the reason for these walls. According to Piperno, one reason may have been to protect the inhumed body and the furnishings from the fall of gravel (Piperno 1977: 122). However, since these walls also exist in the parts of the graveyard where the ground is not loose and there is no threat of gravel fall, the reason remains uncertain, unless we consider ideologicaVritual traditions. Most graves, a total of 82, belong to this type. Except for a few graves containing up to five human skeletons, all other graves only have one human. The average number of the objects found in this type of grave ranges from 0 to 8, rising to 18-20. Chronologically 38 graves are attributed to period I, 26 to period II, 3 to period III, 1 to period IV and 14 are undetermined (Figs. 6: a-b; 7: a-b; 8: a-b). 3 Pseudo Catacombs. This grave structure is extremely similar to the catacombs of type 4. The main difference is the height of the closing wall (ibid., 141 ). No such grave was found during the second cycle of excavations. 4 Catacombs. This grave type has vertical, rectangular shaped pits with various depths and an elliptical chamber opening to one of the long sides of the vertical shaft connecting it to the underground chamber. The floor of the chamber is lower than the floor of the vertical shaft. After the inhumation the entrance of the underground chamber was closed by a mudbrick wall, and the vertical shaft was filled up. This grave type was used for both individual burials (IUG.1405, IUK.l615, IUA.l705 and IUF.2802) and multiple burials (IUG.l400 and IUG.l404). According to Piperno ( 1979: 125), this type of grave was mainly built for family groups. While the passage connecting the shaft and chamber of pseudocatacombs is marked by one or two rows of mudbricks, the entrance doors of catacombs are completely closed. It seems that this type of imposing grave belongs to a distinguished class of society, as seen by the grave structure, and from the quality and quantity of grave goods. The skeleton and the goods are disposed on the floor of the chamber, while the vertical pit usually remains empty, although in one case, IUG.l400, a number of vessels were placed inside it. Six graves of this type were found during the excavations. 9 The number of grave goods in this particular type is very high. A total of 354 objects have been found in six graves, from a minimum of Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Fig. 4. Typology of grave structures. 27 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 28 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 @@ @) a. IUA 1705 ~ N I Oc:=:::JI-I:::::=:J--=::::=:JIOcm Fig. 5. Graves at Shahr-i Sokhta. b. lUG 1403 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 5 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 6 7 8 9 20 (IUF.2802) to a maximum of 101 (IUG.l404). Chronologically these grave types are attributed to the period that goes from the last phases of period II to the early phases of period IV, or to late period III. (Figs. 7: a, c; 8: b). Rectangular mudbrick structures. Rectangular pits with mudbrick walls on four sides of the pit. This grave type is extremely rare (Piperno I977: 141). No grave of this type has been found by the Iranian expedition. и Square mudbrick structures. This type differs from the previous one only by its geometrical shape (ibid.). No grave of this type has been found by the Iranian expedition. Square shaped graves with two mudbrick walls. Two walls are built with mudbricks, while the other two are dug into the ground. This grave type is very rare (ibid.). No grave of this type has been found by the Iranian expedition. Circular mudbrick structures. Only one grave of this type has been discovered. The round wall is built with mudbricks (Piperno I986, Tavola XV). No grave of this type has been found by the Iranian expedition. In addition to the above-mentioned eight grave types, a new type was found during the recent excavations. It consists of a circular pit, similar to the simple pit graves (type I), differing by a closed entrance . This is similar to the mudbrick wall used to close the entrance of the catacomb doors. Four graves of this type, three in square IUL, one in square lUG, have been found very near to each other. Two graves, IUL.l502 and IUL.l505 contain one human skeleton, while the other two, IUL 1514 and lUG 1403, have two human skeletons. Between 5 and 19 goods were placed inside each grave. Chronologically three graves are attributed to period I and lUG 1403 to period III (Fig. 5: b; Fig. 6: c). According to the material published by the Italian expedition, types I to 4 were common forms, as confirmed by the results obtained by the Iranian expedition. Types five to eight were very rare and only five graves were found: two of the sixth type, and one each of the fifth, seventh and eighth type (ibid.). The main material used in the grave structures is mudbrick. Mudbricks are used for the walls of bipartite graves. The surrounding walls of the graves consist of six to eight rows of mudbricks. They are also used to 29 close the interconnecting doors of grave types 3, 4 and 9. The type and shape of these bricks is more or less similar to those from the residential areas. Three different sizes of brick are found at the graveyard: 20 x 20 x 10 em., 50 x 25 x 10 em. and 40 x 20 x 10 em. The first two types are rarely used, as the third is the standard one. In each grave only one type of brick was used. Exceptions to this are HTR 2700, HTR 270I, with two different mudbrick types, and HMY I800, where there are three different sizes ofmudbrick: 40 xIS xIS, 25 x I 0 x 9 and 40 x 30 x I3 em. But HRJ I900, on the other hand, has 40 x IS x I 0 em. bricks. In addition to mudbricks, matting is used as well, usually to cover the grave's floor, although in one case, HTR 2700, matting in excellent condition covered one of the grave's walls (Fig. 9). Normally, graves are not marked, e.g. by grave stones, although some evidence found during the I997-2000 excavations indicates the presence of grave marks in a few burials. In some cases these were in the form of one or more mudbricks. Well documented examples are found in HTR 2703 (Fig. 8: a, c) and in IUA I703. The first grave was marked by a number of pottery vessels arranged like a column, c. 80 centimeters above the burial. The second grave was marked by the stone tools of a craftsman which had been placed about 25-30 em. above it. The structural differences between the various types of graves are not due to the sex or age of individuals, except for infants who are mostly buried in simple pits (type 1), but there do seem to be differences in the social status and religious tradition of the individuals buried. As well as ritual manifestations, the presence of some grave types, e.g. bipartite ones and catacombs, could be interpreted as a reflection of the funerary practices of the land of origin of the inhumed. Bipartite graves are found from the seventh mjllennium onwards in Mehrgareh in northern Baluchistan, while catacombs appear during the fourth millennium in Turkmenistan (ibid., 263). METHOD OF INHUMATION The graves at Shahr-i Sokhta could be described as irregular and non-uniform. Everything lacks uniformity: the shape of the graves, the inhumation, the typology of grave structures, the direction of the graves and orientation of the inhumed, and the arrangement of grave goods. The graves are dug and structured in all Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 30 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 31 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 32 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 33 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA / / / '' _,..E. ,_..;.-------~ - -:_ _- -~:;.... ~~=--=~~ . -==-- . -и Fig. 9. Layout of mudbricks in bipartite graves. и--- - ....- JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 34 Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1100 1101 1102 1200 1201 1300 1301 1400 1400/a 1400/b-c 1401 1402 1403/a-b 1404/a-b 1405 1406 1407 1408/a-b 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414/a-b 1415/a-b 1416 1500/a--c 1501/a-b 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 I 512/a--c 1513 1514/a-b 1515 1516 1517 1518 Square Grave Type No. of Skeletons No. of Objects Period I I I I I I 12 I 4 II II II II IRS IRS IRS IUB IUB IUC I I 2 2 I IUC lUG lUG lUG lUG 2 4 4 4 2 lUG lUG lUG lUG lUG lUG I 9 4 4 I I lUG lUG lUG lUG lUG lUG lUG I lUG lUG IUL IUL IUL IUL IUL IUL 2 2 I 2 2 I 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 I I I I 2 I I 2 2 I I I 2 I I I I I 2 2 I IUL IUL IUL IUL IUL IUL I 3 2 I I I I I I I I I I 2 2 9 2 2 3 I 2 I I IUL IUL 2 2 I IUL IUL IUL IUL IUL 9 I I I I I I 7 9 14 I 63 12 13 0 I 6 101 24 0 0 10 0 8 0 7 6 II 0 7 3 6 5 I 3 19 0 0 0 I I I 3 I 5 7 8 7 2 I I ? IV IV III? ? ? III Ill II ? ? IV ? I ? I I I ? I II I I ? IV I ? ? ? II I ? II ? I I I I IV EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Grave No. Square Grave Type 35 No. of Skeletons No. of Objects Period 1519 IUL I I 9 I 1520 I I 8 1521 IUL IUL I I 4 I I 1600 IUK I I 8 1601 IUK 2 I 8 1602 IUK 2 I 18 1603 1604 IUK 2 I 2 IUK 2 I 5 1605 IUK 2 I 20 II II II II I II ? II I ? II II ? I I 1606 !UK 2 I 0 1607 IUK 2 I 3 1608 !UK 2 0 I 1609 IUK I I 0 1610 1611 IUK I I IUK ? I 5 4 1612 IUK I I 0 1613 IUK 2 I 6 1614 IUK 2 I 3 1614/a IUK 2 I 4 I 1615 1700 IUK 4 I 56 IUA 2 I 8 2 I 3 1702 IUA IUA 2 I 3 Ill II II II 1703 IUA 2 I 7 1704 IUA 2 I 6 1705 IUA 4 I IUA 2 I 65 12 IV 1706 1707 IUA I I 48 Ill 1708 IUA 2 0 13 I 1709 IUA 2 I 7 I 1710 IUA 2 I 6 1711 IUA I I I 1712 1713 IUA I IUA 2 I I 5 II 1714 IUA I I 0 1715 IUA 2 I '0 1716 IUA 2 I II 1717 IUA 2 I 8 1718 IUA 2 I 8 1800 HMY 2 I 1900 1901 HRJ HRJ 2 ? I I 3 10 I? 1902 HRJ 2 I I? 2000/a--e GTS 2 2100 BTT 2 5 I 2 II II IV I ? ? I I I II I ? ? II II 2200 2300/a-b IPL - - - - IPB ? 2 0 ? 2301 IPB I 6-8? 0 ? 1701 8 I I I 36 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Grave No. Square Grave Type No. of Skeletons No. of Objects Period 2302 IPB 2 I 4 II 2400 2401 NAB 2 I 4 II NAB HYE 2 I 4 I? 2500 I I I II 2501 HYE 2 I 3 2502 HYE 2 3 2503 2504 HYE HYE' 2 2505 2506 HYE I HYE 2 2507 HYE 2 2508 HYE 2 2508/a HYE 2 2509 HYE 2 2510 2511 HYE I HYE HYE 2 I I I I I I I I I 2 I I I I I I I I I I 3 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II III ? II II I ? II I III II II I I I II III ? II I I I I I IV I IV ? II II ? ? I I II ? II II II 2512 2513 2514 2 2 HYE 2 HYE 2 HYN I HYN 2 2 2700 HYN HTR 2701 HTR 2 2600 2601 2602 2 2702 HTR 2 2703/a--c HTR 2 2800 2801 IUF 2 IUF IUF 2 4 2803 IUF 2 2804 IUF I 2805 IUF 2? 2806 2807 IUF IUF 2 2808 2809 IUF IUF I 2 2810 IUF 2 2811 IUF 2 2812 IUF I 2900 2901 HYJ I HYJ 2 2902 HYJ HYJ 2 2802 2903 I I 0 5 3 0 0 I I 8 3 5 7 10 2 5 2 0 3 8 12 12 7 6 20 7 I 0 3 I I 0 14 4 2 0 3 I 3 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA directions, with different orientations of the inhumed. The heads of individuals and their eyes are oriented toward different geographical directions too. The bodies were all buried in different positions: fetal, supine and crouched positions, lying on the right or left side, with fully extended body and legs, supine position, e.g. IUL.1518, and prone position with also extended or flexed legs, facing down with collected and flexed arms under the stomach, e.g. female individual, IUG.1411, without any grave goods. Collective grave, IUL.1500, of a female and two infants; with female individual buried on her left side, covering the two infants with her hands, probably her children, showing her affection and love. The most frequent inhumation position at Shahr-i Sokhta is the sleeping position, with the arms raised above the head or bent toward the face. This probably demonstrates that the inhabitants of Shahr-i Sokhta regarded death as a process or stage of human life, and not as complete physical decomposition and annihilation With a few exceptions, in none of the squares is there a logical chronology,Io as all known periods of occupation are present, with a variety of grave types in almost all the squares examined. The lack of order in the direction and structure of graves is witness to a tradition that continued in that society for more than one thousand years. On the other hand, this irregularity and nonuniformity of funerary rituals, may not only suggest the existence of an ideological and ritual variety within the population of Shahr-i Sokhta, but might indicate that remote memories of the individuals' area of origin. The reason for the many examples of grave shapes and structures, e.g. simple pits, is that they are one of the most common forms of inhumation. Other grave types, e.g. 2 and 4, were used for almost one thousand years at Shahr-i Sokhta without any perceivable change in structure. The question then is: how did a tradition continue for such a long time? The only reasonable answer is probably to be found in rituaVideological manifestations and traditions. If this assumption were true for grave structures, it could also apply to the direction of burials and the orientation of the bodies, collective/ familiar graves, the arrangement of grave goods and so on. As already mentioned, the inhumations were orientated in different directions, in prone or supine positions. One can assume that inhumations were taking place at different times of the day, and not at a specific/conventional hour of the day. If this were correct, then there would have been a ritual tradition that 37 depended on the time of the day in which the inhumation took place. The time of inhumation can be deduced from the orientation of the head and eyes. When the face is towards the floor of the grave, then inhumation may have taken place at night. When the head was oriented toward the sun, then the burial may have taken place during daytime. According to the available data, at least some of the bodies of Shahr-i Sokhta were wrapped inside a cloth. This is suggested by human bones from various graves which had textile fragments stuck to them. Fabrics were used in three different forms: as cloth to wrap the body, as carpets/coverlet, covering almost all the surface of the grave and grave goods, and as dresses. The first case is the most frequent one. IUC.1300, IUG.140 1, IUG.1504, IUG.l506, lUG. 1507, IUG.1509, IUG.l510, IUG.l518, IUA.l709, IUF.2802 and IBP.2300 are graves where the inhumed is wrapped in cloth. In the second case, a rough and cheap cloth was used for the grave's floor, the body was then placed on this and covered with a finer cloth; e.g. IUA.1707 and probably IUA.1709. In this last grave, fragments of a possible felt carpet were found. II The third use of cloth was when the body was buried with his or her dress, as it seems in IUA.1703. The floor of this grave was covered with a very thick cloth, and the body was placed on top of it. Under the back of the female body a considerable number of semi-precious beads were found. They were most probably the decoration of the dress. According to published data of the first expedition, there were no bodies found with the head covered (Piperno 1977: 141 ). During the recent excavations, some burials with a textile head cover were discovered. In the case of the individual buried in IUL.1504, not only did the grave have a very thick and coarse fabric carpet/cover, but the whole body was wrapped, with the head tied in a cloth and bound with a cord. This has decayed with time and is broken into pieces, ending up tinder his neck in fragmentary form. (Fig. 10: a, c). This is also the case with IUL.l500, where individuals were completely covered. According to available data from excavations, it seems that the use of carpets, cloths/mats was a tradition at Shahr-i Sokhta. A mat in excellent condition was found in IUG.1400. This was laid out on the remaining bones of burial IUG.l400a. The last buried individual, a young woman of 17-22 years, was placed on this mat (Fig. 10: d). Mats were also found in IUG.1405, IPB.2300 and GTS.2000b (Fig. 10: b, d). With regard to fabric used Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 38 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES both as floor covering ("carpets") and to wrap bodies, it is interesting to note that among a total of fifteen graves with wrapped bodies, dresses or carpets made of fabric/textile, 12 only three graves, IUF.2802, IUA.l709 and IUL.l504, belonged to male individuals, one grave, IUG.l400 to an undetermined individual, four graves, IUL.l506, IUL.l507, IUL.l509 and IUA.l707 to children, one grave, IUL.l500 to a family and six graves, IUC.l300, IUL.l5l0, IUL.l518, IPB.2300, IUA.l703 and GTS.2000b, to female individuals. The presence of some unusual inhumations may indicate that human sacrifices were frequent at Shahr-i Sokhta. However, because of the very little data available, this statement must be taken with great caution (Piperno 1979: 139). The shape and form ofthe inhumation in some tombs brings to mind the possibility that this tradition may have existed at Shahr-i Sokhta. Among the excavated graves, there are several cases of a single skull buried. Grave IUL.l502 contains a skull together with five grave goods. In another grave, IPB.230 I , a total of 6-8 skulls were arranged around a circular pit (Fig. 6: d) that had its inner hole filled up with the remains of human bones, similar to grave HNE.609 (Piperno 1986: fig. 4 ). Another important case is the bipartite grave IUF.28l 0, where it seems that the head of the buried individual was cut, probably in a complicated ritual ceremony, by a knife/dagger and then disposed under his feet at a distance of almost 40 em. This grave contains 13 grave goods, including a metal knife or dagger near his right hand, which was probably used to kill the individual (Fig. 8: d). Many graves suggest the presence of particular religious practices or ritual traditions. Collective and familiar graves, empty and re-utilised tombs, demonstrate the presence of various customs that could be interpreted as religious worship practices and social traditions. During the excavations, several empty tombs were found. Some of these were dug into the ground, ready for use, but were left completely empty. IUK.l608 and IUA.l708, yielded 6 and 13 grave goods respectively, but without any remains of human skeletons. These empty tombs are related to some sort of ritual ceremony, but are different from those reported at Mehrgareh (Santoni 1981: 52). While at Mehrgareh in Pakistan there are traces of burning around the cenotaphs that bring to mind some possible relationship with rites of cremation (ibid.), here, at Shahr-i Sokhta, the assumption is that they were probably built in the memory of people who died far from their homeland or disappeared for some unknown reason. Being traditional or perhaps "religious" people, the relatives performed a traditional religious funerary ceremony. They prepared the tombs and arranged the grave goods according to tradition, thus performing a social and ritual duty. This hypothesis may seem simple and superficial, but on the other hand there is no other logical and justified reason for the presence of this type of grave. In addition to the above mentioned graves, collective and family graves, graves with kid offerings, which were an old tradition known from at least the seventh millennium B.C. onward (Lechevallier et al. 1982), different inhumation procedures and a variation of grave goods must be taken into consideration. With regard to graves with no grave goods, it must be noted that most of these were badly eroded and disturbed, and belonged to new-born babies and infants under two years. The possibility that this group of graves originally contained perishable material that decayed over time has already been mentioned. These graves may have also belonged to a distinctive class of people with different traditions or religious customs. Grave goods could have had two different functions: a) in relation to worship and funerary rituals and, b) in relation to the social class and status of the deceased. Although there is not enough data available on the social status of the inhabitants of Shahr-i Sokhta, which is in contrast to Altyn Depe, for example (Masson 1988), there are still some traces of grave goods and offerings, which could indicate differences between social classes. During the first phase of excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta, the Italian expedition found 19 kids/lambs (Piperno 1986: 262). The presence of these animal bones is mainly related to religious practices and funerary rituals among the herders of Shahr-i Sokhta (Piperno 1977: 136; 1979: 136). It seems, however, that there could also be some other reason, as they could simply represent the social status of the deceased, who could have been a shepherd. Seventeen complete kids were found in fourteen graves: IUG.l413, 1414, IUL.l515, IUK.l607, 1613, IUA.l704, 1705, 1706, 1713, 1718, HYE.2513, 2514, HTR.2702 and IUF.2811. This is an old tradition that can be dated back to the seventh millennium at Mehrgareh (Shaffer 1986: 68). Unlike the former excavations, when several isolated bone fragments were recovered (Piperno 1986: 262) all kids found during 1997-2000 were intact and complete. All four graves containing two kids, IUG.l414, IUL.l515, IUA.l704 and IUA.l706, belonged to male Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Fig. 10. Graves at Shahr-i Sokhta. 39 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 40 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES individuals. In total, among fourteen graves with kids, nine belonged to male individuals, one to an uncertain male, one to a child, one to an undetennined individual and only two graves, IUK.1613 and IUA.1705 to female individuals. Except for two cases, the tombs with kids are bipartite graves: IUG.1414, a simple pit, and IUA.I705, probably a catacomb. Chronologically, one burial, IUA.1705 is attributed to the period I, nine to period II, one to period III and none to period IV. Almost all these graves are found in the central part of the graveyard and in trenches next to each other. The only exception is HTR.2702, located in the western side of the central part of the graveyard. Apart from IUA.I705, with sixty-five grave goods, all other burials could be considered "middle class" graves. Four burials yielded limestone, comelian, turquoise and lapis lazuli beads. The lapis lazuli beads of two burials, IUL.1515 and IUK.1607, were covered with a narrow gold strip. The kid remains of IUA.1704 were disposed under the feet of the body, but in all other cases, the kids were buried either under the skull or in front of the face near the hands of the individuals. In one case, IUL.1515, the legs of the kid were positioned on the skull of the buried individual and its head was close to the hands of the deceased. No signs of slaughter have been found and it seems that the animals were first suffocated and then buried. According to the available data, more than 10% of graves contained kids, and if we consider the nineteen found in earlier excavations (Piperno 1986: 262), 13 we have almost the same percentage. If it is true that the possession of analogous objects or tools can be interpreted as an indication of the occupation of the owners of the graves, then as Piperno states: "the social structure of the Shahr-i Sokhta people and their division into classes according to their craft or productive activity are mirrored in the graveyard by the distribution of wealth" (Piperno 1977: 140). It can therefore be concluded that the presence ofkids in 10% of the graves may reflect ritual practices but, more probably, it is related to animal husbandry and the life of the herdsmen at Shahr-i Sokhta (Fig. 7: a). Most burials contain only one human skeleton, although some graves have two or more. One hundred and seventeen graves, or 89% of the total, were occupied by a single individual, 10% were occupied by more than one, and less than 1% were empty. According to the number of skeletons, the graves ofShahr-i Sokhta can be divided as follows: a) Common graves: this group contains one human skeleton and some grave goods. The quantity and quality of the goods depend on the social status of the deceased. TABLE 3. Graves with kids and associated grave goods. No. 1413 1414 Type 2 I Sex M M (Two) Goat I 1515 2 1607 2 1613 1704 1705 1706 1713 1718 2513 2514 2702 2811 2 2 2?-4? 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2' Pottery 5 8 Alabaster I I M? 2 4 2 M I 3 I F I 2 I 3 5 63 II 9 7 6 2 10 2 I I 0 I 0 0 2 0 I 0 M F M M M M Child Undetermined M 2 I I I I I I Beads 0 20 limestone/ comet ian 5 lapis lazuli, gold covered 5 lapis lazuli, gold covered 2 terracotta 0 0 0 0 I stone bead 0 0 0 21 lapis lazuli, comelian/ turquoise/stone Other objects 0 0 0 0 0 0 I metal pin/ textile 0 I metal seal/ I stone tool I stone tool 2 bone tools 0 0 0 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA b) Multiple graves: these are subdivided into four types: Type I. Graves with family ties. These graves were used after the death of members of a family. Grave IUG.1400, for instance, was used on four different occasions. It is believed that the re-utilisation of graves during the third millennium B.C. was a common tradition. In graveyard G. of Mundigak some graves were used for more than one person (Casal1961: figs. 44-45; pl. XB-D). Multiple graves were also common at Altyn-Depe (Masson 1988: 65-72). Catacombs must be considered as family graves (Piperno 1979: 125), although among a total of six, only two, IUG.l400 and IUG.l404 contained respectively four and two bodies, while in the four remaining graves only one individual was buried. In IUG.l400 the bones of the two bodies that were buried first were collected in a comer of the funerary chamber, while the two who were buried later, were lying on top of each other. According to the available data from the excavated catacombs, it seems that in addition to the re-use of these structures for family graves, the catacombs were perhaps also built as a tribute to individuals from important and wealthy families. A total of 354 grave goods have been found inside the six excavated catacombs: IUG.1400 with 88 items, IUG.l404, 101 items, IUG.l405 with 24 items, IUA.1705 with 65 items, IUF.2802 with 20 items, and IUK.1615 with 56 items. Type 2. Second family type graves. This grave type contains human skeletal remains of members of the same family who died at the same time. Graves IUG.1408 and HTR.2703 contained three bodies, IUL.1500 with the bone remains of a female and two children, and IUG.1403 with the skeletal remains of a male and a female (Fig. 6: c). Type 3. Collective graves. Unlike the cases above, there is no reason to assume that the skeletal remains belonged to the same family. It seems rather that the presence of multiple bodies is due to some ritual tradition or perhaps religious practices, as for example graves IBP.2300 and IBP.230. IPB.2301 (Fig. 6: d) consists of a circular pit with a diameter of c. 1m. and a depth of38-80 em. with 6-8 human skulls 14 laid out in a circle next to each other. The central space of the "grave" is filled with the remaining human bones. This grave is similar to grave HNБ.609.15 Type 4. Graves containing different fragments of human bones gathered together, as for example IUG.l407. 16 41 c) Graves with mutilated skeletal remains. The skeletons belonging to these graves are not anatomically complete. The analysis of the remaining fragments shows that this is not due to decay or natural defect. The remains and bones of one group of this grave type were damaged by newly dug graves. For example, in graves IRS.11 00 and IRS.11 02 skeletons were mutilated and grave goods broken. Among these burials, there are other graves containing only parts of human skeletons, or only a skull with a complete set of grave goods, but without any trace of damage to the grave structure. In grave IUL.150 1 only the upper part of the skeleton was found, while in grave IUL.l519 the skeleton was without a skull. Grave GTS.2000 with a total of five mutilated or incomplete skeletons also belongs to this same group. Single skulls are buried on their own, as for example graves IUG.1406, IUL.1502 and IUL.1516. In the latter grave the skull was found upside down. It must be noted that the graves of this group contained grave goods. CONCENTRATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BURIALS IN THE GRAVEYARD The number and density of the graves in the central section of the graveyard are higher than those of other sections. Here five main squares, each measuring 100 sq.m., were opened. The calculations made on the number of excavated graves show 17+ graves in each square, compared with 15 per 100 sq.m. of the whole graveyard. The density of graves in the northern part of the graveyard, near the Monumental Area, is much less than in the central section. In square IRS and in an area of c. 30 sq.m., only 3 graves, i.e. 1 grave per 10 sq.m., have been found next to each other. Squares IUL, IUA, lUG, IUK and HYE, in the central part of the graveyard respectively yielded'22, 19, 19, 17 and 17 graves.'? Among the nine known types of grave structure, only four have been found: simple pits, bipartite pits, catacombs and circular graves with a closed entrance. Eighty-two graves (almost 60%)18 belong to the second type, while forty graves (or 29%) are simple pits, eight (6%) are catacombs,l9 and four (3%) are circular graves with a closed entrance. The remainder, less than 2%, are not attributed to any known type of grave due to excessive erosion (Fig. 11: a). The grave types are distributed as follows with respect to the period of occupation: from a total of 82 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 42 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES bipartite pits, 38 (46%) belong to period I; 26 (32%) to period II; 3 (4%) to period III; l to period IV, while 14 graves (17%) cannot be determined. Among the 40 simple pits, 16 (40%) are not datable, while 6 (15%) belong to period I, 14 (35%) to period II, l (2.5%) to period III and 3 (7.5%) to period IV. The eight catacombs are divided evenly between periods III and IV. Finally, three round-shaped graves are of period I, while the fourth is attributed to p~riod III.zo Due to the similarity between- certain grave goods, mainly pottery that could be attributed to different cultural phases, the date of some graves is uncertain. This occurs particularly in graves attributed to cultural phases 8 and 7 of periods I and II, and to phases 3 and 2 of periods III and IV. The initial dating2 1 of these groups of graves is established according to the largest number of objects that can be attributed to a given phase. Some graves are not datable because of the total absence of cultural material, although an approximate date can be established by considering the general aspects of the grave, the vicinity to a specific group and the location within the squares. Among the excavated graves 32 (23.5%) lacked any kind of cultural material and contained only remains of human skeletons. Undoubtedly this high percentage of graves without goods is considerable and although this could be accidental, it may also apply to the whole graveyard. Of those empty graves, 50% are simple pits and 48% are bipartite pits. However, it is not possible to assume that this was the original state of the graves, as some of these graves could have possibly contained perishable and organic material such as food, mats, baskets, wooden objects and cloth bags, which decayed during time. A total of 47 graves (34.5%) are attributed to period I, which covers c. 400 years and cultural phases l 0 to 8. The excavated graves of this period are attributed to the ninth and eighth phases, but no burials are attributed to the oldest phase of this period. The vast majority of graves of this period, 38 (82%) are bipartite pits, while 6 (13%) are simple pits, and 3 (5.6%) are circular graves with a closed entrance. During this period no catacomb or pseudo-catacomb was found. Statistically, period II, with a total of 41 graves (30%), follows period I. A total of26 graves (63.5%) of this period, are of the bipartite type and 14 graves (34.5%) are simple pits. The number of graves of periods III and IV are limited. The total excavated graves of period III consist of nine burials (6.5%), four catacombs (44.5%), three bipartite pits (34.5%), one circular grave with a closed entrance and one simple pit. This percentage is more or less repeated in period IV. Eight of the total excavated graves (6%) are attributed to this period. These consist of four catacombs (50%), three simple pits (37.5%) and one bipartite pit (see below, Fig. 34: b). FURNISHING Due to the high proportion of graves containing goods and their suitable state of preservation, the graveyard of Shahr-i Sokhta can be considered as a "rich" and "wealthy" graveyard. It contains a vast collection of different materials and objects, which are useful for understanding the nature of the society and the daily life of the people. The difference, both qualitative and quantitative, between "poor" and "rich" graves, depends on the structure of the grave and the social position of the buried individual. The number of excavated graves, with respect to the estimated tombs of the graveyard, is still insufficient22 to allow us an explanation for these differences. The available data would suggest that certain graves, for example those of children and non-adult individuals, could be classified as "poor" burials due to the quality and quantity of their grave goods. There are however some exceptions. Generally speaking, the grave goods are in fairly good condition, although this depends on the location of the excavated squares. The majority of grave goods consist of different types of pottery. Stone, matting, wood, metal and bone are also found. The discovery of hundreds of different objects and fragments inside the graves demonstrates that we are dealing with a very wealthy society. More than 900 objects found in graves in the 1997-2000 seasons were still intact and complete, not counting fragments, as well as organic and other decayed material. If we consider an excavated area of c. 880 sq.m., then we can calculate that 1.5 objects were deposited in every sq.m. of the graveyard. Each grave normally contains one or two beakers, one bowl, one small jar and one stone vessel, which usually has the remains of various kinds of cooked or raw food and bioorganic material. According to available data more than 52% of burials (69 tombs) contain 47% of grave goods, that is between 0-3 objects. The other 53% are related to the remaining burials. This shows again the noticeable difference between the quantity, and not quality, of grave 43 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 70% ?61% 60% 50% Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 40% I 30% 1\ I \ ~8% 20% 10% \ \ \ ~' 3% 2% 0% 2 9 4 ? a. Grave Type 40% 34% 35% 30% 25% ~' / ~30% \ 20% 15% 10% \ \ \ 6% 7% 5% 0% ? Ill b. Period of Occupation Fig. 11. Grave types and occupation periods at Shahr-i Sokhta. IV Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 44 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES goods, i.e. "wealthy" and "poor" graves at Shahr-i Sokhta, as well as the difference in age groups and individuals ofboth sexes. In fact, compared with empty and "poor" graves, there were also "rich" burials which contained 50 to more than I 00 grave goods, e.g. IUG.I404, IUG.l400 or IUK.l615. The difference between the quality and quantity of objects disposed in graves also depends on the area and structure of the graves. It has been mentioned that thirty-two graves were empty, that is 23% of the total excavated burials. Although this type of grave includes both sexes and is found in various sectors of the graveyard, most of these graves belong to newborn or to children buried at a depth of a few centimetres below the surface. Since we have no knowledge of the funerary rites at Shahr-i Sokhta, we do not know if these tombs were empty from the beginning, if they remained empty intentionally, or if they were furnished with decayed material that perished over time. It is possible to assume that perhaps the inhabitants of Shahr-i Sokhta, at least at one point, may have regarded death as a temporary and deep sleep or, in other words, as a normal and common process of life. Hence, an organised structure for funerary rites and ceremonies may have existed. This is possible, if we take into account the shape and type of graves and the grave goods, particularly the pottery deposited in the catacombs. Consequently, the presence of an organised group of priests was necessary, not just for the funerary practice and ceremonies, but also for setting up the grave goods. The similarity in the arrangement of objects and bodies, especially in catacombs, indicates that this was probably the work of a single person or a specific group with a common ideological belief, as for example in the case of catacombs IUG.l400, and IUG.l404. Almost all the pottery in both graves was new and unused. This shows that it was especially made for funerary purposes. Grave goods had different functions; certain objects were for ritual purposes, others were personal belongings of the inhumed. Some grave goods indicate the daily occupation, job and/or specific interest of the individual. To date several burials attributed to craftsmen have been unearthed at Shahr-i Sokhta (Piperno 1986). Confirmation also comes from at least two graves excavated during 1997-2000. The artifacts and tools of a craftsman, probably a bead maker, in HTR.270l were disposed under his feet (see below, Fig. 38: b-e). In another case, the artifacts and tools of another craftsman, probably a stone cutter, were disposed in square IUA, but without a possible link to any specific grave (see below, Fig. 38: d). The presence of craftsmen graves is a clear indication of the widespread handicraft activities in this proto-historical city, where l 0% of the inhabitants were occupied with animal breeding. The same lack of uniformity present in the grave types and inhumations, also exist among grave goods. Although most objects are pottery and a reflection of the daily life of the individual, some objects are merely related to rituals and ideological traditions. According to this criterion, grave goods could be grouped as: objects of daily use, decorative and ornamental objects, ritual objects, tools, artifacts and bio-botanical and organic materials. Pottery is the main material used for grave goods, though stone, wood, plant, bone, terracotta, metal, etc., are also found. Different stone objects are also produced, for example alabaster, one of the favorite stones, was used for bowls, vases, seals and flagons, but soapstone and chlorite, unlike at Shahdad (Hakemi 1997) and Tepe Yahya (Kohl 2001) were much less common at Shahr-i Sokhta. Other types of stone were used for objects and in particular different types of tools. Semi-precious stones were widespread, lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian were particularly popular at Shahr-i Sokhta (Bulgarelli 1998; Tosi 1973; l974a; l974b) (see below, Figs. 37, 38: a, 39: a-b). Both cylindrical and stamp seals were present inside the graves. Seals found in IUK.l605, IUK.l6l0, and HRJ.l900, probably indicate the social responsibilities and status of the buried individuals (see below, Fig. 36: a). Unlike Shahdad (Hakemi 1997), metal vessels are not frequent.23 Metal objects consist of tools, knives, daggers, mirrors, seals, wands and pins (see below, Fig. 36: c). Bone objects are also rare. Most bone objects consist of tools, with the exception of a decorative item found in HYE.2513, which is similar to the fragment of a worked boar tusk from Tepe Rud-e Biaban (see below, Fig. 36: b) (Santini 1990: fig. 15). Wooden objects were also found. Interesting are a wooden ladle, affected by termites, and a circular mirror box from IUG.l400. Combs are part of wooden collections of grave goods (see below, Fig. 41 : a, e, g, f, h). A considerable number of textile fragments in different shapes were also discovered: traces of mat bags were found inside bowls, containing food remains and offerings. Large reed baskets contained smaller objects. In IUG.l400, cosmetic items were put inside a reed basket and placed near the head of the dead person. In Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA IUA.1709, two baskets were placed inside the usually empty section of this bipartite burial (see below, Fig. 41: c; Fig. 12: a). Carpets made of textile were also used. In IUG.1400, which contained four buried individuals, the last body was resting on a mat placed directly over the body of the third individual. In one case, IUF.2700, fragments of a mat were attached to the grave's wall (see below, Fig. 41: b; Fig. 12: a-e). It has been mentioned that grave goods were directly related to daily jobs, economic interests or the social status of the buried individual. Although in more than 20% of graves there were no visible goods, about 80% of burials contained enough material to allow some conclusions on the social aspects of the society. On the other hand, it has been mentioned that most empty graves belonged. to newborn or children buried in shallow pits. This phenomenon may be explained in different ways: it is possible that at some specific time, due to an epidemic, the number of dead children rose, causing the corpses to be buried quickly in order to avoid the spread of the disease. There could also be religious reasons, which prevented non-adult individuals from having offerings. The final reason, as mentioned earlier, could be the perishable nature of the offerings. The majority of furnished graves cannot be compared with each other, in particular graves with kid offerings are completely different from the empty, unfurnished graves. Here, the number of grave goods and their quality are directly related to the social status of the buried individual. In addition to grave goods, a considerable quantity of bio-botanical and organic material was found. A preliminary study of biobotanical and organic materials24 conserved in the pottery of IUK.1615 shows that 18 vessels (4 small and big jars, 1 beaker and 13 bowls) contained grapes, barley, wheat, wheat flour, fragments of wood and a tiny fragment of carbon.2s POTTERY The number of ceramic vessels at Shahr-i Sokhta is surprising. Some pottery kilns are located in the northwestern part of the site near and around the Monumental Area, but most vessels were produced out of town in places such as Rud-e Biaban (Biscione 1990), Tepe Dash and in the lowlands, located in the eastern parts of the site, where traces of hundreds of pottery kilns, fragments of pottery and wasted fragments were clearly visible. 45 The pottery of Shahr-i Sokhta is commonly Buff Ware, wheel-made with fme and medium-sized sand temper. Unpainted BuffWare vessels have a coarse body and are considered as the "standard" pottery type of Shahr-i Sokhta. Coarse and Fine Wares are rare. With some exception, the quality of pottery at Shahr-i Sokhta has to be considered as a "middle class" pottery. Some common shapes are beakers, bowls, carafes, plates, dishes, large and small jars, pots, flower vases and trays (Figs. 13-15; Fig. 16: a-1). Generally speaking, the pottery of Shahr-i Sokhta could be divided into two main groups ofBuff and Grey Ware, with some rare Red Ware pottery. Buff Ware occurs in a variety of forms of beakers, bowls, pots and other minor frequent shapes in all periods. Beakers, in particular pear-shaped ones, are present in all phases in a standard and almost uniform shape. During the first two periods of occupation almost all beakers are painted, while from the middle of the third period, the number of unpainted beakers increases. Different designs, motifs and potter's marks, both painted and engraved, appear on a number of beakers, such as bowls and jars. Straight and oblique lines are more common. Unpainted hemispheric Buff Ware bowls are the most common vessel shapes of Shahr-i Sokhta, although painted bowls, decorated with geometrical designs are also frequent. The motifs on the painted Buff Ware pottery have been subject to gradual changes during periods I to IV. Most motifs are geometric patterns; there are for example horizontal lines or bands, chains of triangles, upside-down triangles and stepped lines. Zoomorphic motifs, goats, ibex, birds and fish are less common than geometric patterns. Goats and ibex designs are frequent on beakers and during the third period, stylised fish appear on the inside of bowls and dishes. In this later period, some naturalistic motifs are also present, as they represent the nature and milieu ,of Shahr-i Sokhta: water courses, lakes and cultivated fields appear inside shallow bowls or dishes. In general, the colour range goes from a very light to a very dark brown, almost black (Figs. 17-23; see below Fig. 32: b-e). Grey Ware pottery vessels consist of large and small bowls, small pots and some less frequent forms, such as trumpet shapes. Some Grey Ware pottery vessels are intensely burnt, so that the grey colour has turned black. Almost all deep bowls are. painted, while some smaller bowls are unpainted. The painted motifs appear both on the outside and inside of the bowls. The motif on the outside is commonly applied to the upper section of the Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 46 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 47 \ 1418.2 1815.25 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1815.27 . 7 'I 1200.2 'J ) ' 2802.10 ] 2802.18 1412.5 / 1709.7 2513.2 '\..]/ 1408.1 "I 1705.43 7 l~_JL________j) L 1705.7 1408.2 Fig. 13. Unpainted buff ware bowls/plates. 48 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 1400.19 1400b-c.6 \. \ \ ; / 1705.52 (J_) 1400.4 -,) Cl-- (D 1519.6 0 1604.3 5 Fig. 14. Unpainted buff ware jars/pots. 49 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 1404a.52 1705.1 1615.44 1400.1 1518.1 1615.45 1705.56 2100.5 1404a.50 1201.1 1709.9 1709.1 Fig. 15. Unpainted buff ware pear-shaped, large beakers, tea pots. 1615.46 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 50 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 16. Buff ware bowls, pots and jars. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA bowls and the rim. Common designs include lines, bands and hatched triangles. The designs on the inside, on the other hand, cover the entire surface of the bowls, and represent scenes from nature, with two crossed Sshaped motifs. In some cases, the motifs on the inside are the same as the ones on the outside. The Grey Ware pottery of Shahr-i Sokhta roughly corresponds to the "Emir Ware Pottery", largely found in Pakistani Baluchistan (Wright 1984; Besenval2000; Bonora eta/. 2000) (Figs. 2~29). Bi-chrome and Polychrome Wares are also found. The hi-chrome vessels are cylindrical beakers with a flat base and geometrical motifs painted in orange, black and brown colours (Fig. 30: e; Fig. 23: i-k). The Polychrome Wares are hemispheric and cylindrical jars with flat bases (Fig. 30: a-d). The pottery of the graveyard could be divided as follows: Everyday vessels: These are probably vessels which were used by the deceased during his lifetime. They consist of bowls, dishes, plates and beakers, painted and unpainted wares. It seems that the pearshaped beakers had a particular role in funerary ceremonies, they were present in almost all excavated and furnished graves. Newly-made vessels: They were probably made by order solely for funerary ceremonies. This group consists of various sizes of Unpainted Buff Ware bowls, pots and jars. Most objects of this group are vessels found in catacombs, and have incised and painted potter's marks. Mortuary vessels: This group consists of a group of Grey Ware bowls, which were rare in the Residential and Monumental areas. Unlike unpainted Buff Ware vessels, these items were used. Most objects of this group are painted with the exception of smaller bowls. 2 6 POTTER'S MARKS A number of pottery vessels and fragments found at Shahr-i Sokhta have signs and marks known as "potter's marks". These marks are found at eastern Iranian sites, such as Shahdad (Hakerni 1972; 1997; Kaboli 1368), and Tepe Yahya (Potts 1981 ). Some marks are similar to Proto-Elamite signs (Merriggi 1971-74), while others served as measurement units. 27 In addition to the usually incised, scraped or painted marks on the body of vessels, as for example in G. IUA.1705, an interesting group of marks consisting of sixteen star-shaped signs incised below the neck of the pot were found (Fig. 14: 1705; 51 Fig. 31: d.33; Fig. 16: h). This is similar to the "Quetta Ware" pots of period IV, 3 of Mundigak (Casal1961: fig. 98: no. 465). An unusual group of signs appears inside a small buff ware bowl in NAB.2400, which could suggest an inscription, but without links to any known scripts (Fig. 31: e 12; Fig. 32: a). Another group of painted marks was discovered inside the vessels unearthed in IUA.1710 (Fig. 18: b). This is the only case at Shahr-i Sokhta where a group of painted marks occurred in a single grave. The potter's marks of the graveyard are divided into three groups: scraped, incised (engraved) and painted (Fig. 31: a--e; Fig. 32: a-t). Scraped and incised marks were made with a sharp tipped tool, probably a chiselled bone, while the vessel was still wet. This was done by one or two movements of the potter's hand. The difference between incised and scraped marks is the depth of the mark. While both scraped and incised marks appear on unpainted bowls and jars, painted marks are frequent on painted vessels, particularly beakers. The majority of marked vessels were found in catacombs. This, to some extent, supports the hypothesis of the presence of organised funerary ceremonies and a class of specialist priests. These marks are incised on analogous vessels, such as buff ware bowls and jars; all these had never been used before. In other words, these vessels were made solely for a specific grave and a funerary ceremony. Although the marks differ from each other, there are some similarities between groups of scraped/incised marks and painted marks. The most frequent marks are as follows: a. Scraped marks: Group 1. Vertical lines, diagonal lines (Fig. 31: a. nos. 1-10) Group 2. Wavy lines (Fig. 31: a. nos. 11-20) Group 3. Pattern of two diagonal lines, two horizontal wavy lines, one" straight and one horizontal wavy line, one diagonal and one wavy line, three diagonal lines, three horizontal lines, two horizontal wavy lines and one diagonal line (Fig. 31: a. nos. 21-34) Group 4. Wavy lines: Wavy curved lines, crossed wavy lines (Fig. 31: a. nos. 35-42) Group 5. Stars composed of three crossed lines (Fig. 31: b. nos. 43-47) Group 6. Lines made up of abstract "mountain" shapes: three straight lines, two curved lines and one straight line, composition of a group of diagonal crossed lines (Fig. 31: b. nos. 48-52). 181D.;u ~17 1701.. , '<$_; 7 1100,1V 17011.32 o-s 17011.H 1112:2 ~ Fig. 17. Painted buff ware bowls. 1705.50 '~]и/ 11114.4 7 11111.8 \11 1801.13 1718.4 ~ 1700.7 1708.30 ~7 w "'-~ ~j7 1815.21 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 0 c:::: IZl tr! c:::: t:1 - >-l IZl z ;; IZl ::0 tr! '"'!'j ., 0 > r z ::0 ...... Vl N 1505.4 1717.4 2512.5 1410.6 1710.5 Fig. 18. Painted buff ware deep bowls/jars. 1704.2 2803.3. 1520.1 1707.9 2702.2 0=-=-=5 ~~ 2702.1 1519.3 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 >< ti'l w Ul > ...,::r:: ;;::: "-' 0 ::r:: ~ ...... > ::r:: "-' ~ "-' z 0 > ~ ::l ("'] Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 54 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 1520.5 1700.4 1412.7 / i 2801.1 2801.6 1615.39 0 =-oc::=-~и 5 <::? Fig. 19. Painted buff ware pots. EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 55 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1201.2 2302.5 2000.4 1710.3 2508a.1 2510.2 0 5 Fig. 20. Painted buff ware beakers: large, concial, s-shaped, calix and pear shaped. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 56 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 21. Painted buffware bowls and pots. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 5 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 58 Fig. 23. Painted buff ware and bichrome beakers. 1201.4 1718.5 1614.1 2512.4 0 5 1200.5 2810.4 / ~ 1713.6 Fig. 24. Unpainted gray ware pots/'flower vase'. 2701.6 1613.1 2811.2 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1504.3 1717.3 "-' '-J / 2800.5 / tTl >< '-0 Ul ;J> >-:] :;:-:: :::r:: 0 C/) ~ ...... :::r:: ;J> :::r:: C/) ~ C/) z ...... 0 >-:] ~ (j JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 60 1708.4 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1406.9 1704.5 2703.6 1706.3 1708.12 1706.10 1701.1 1608.6 0=-==--==5 Fig. 25. Painted grey ware small necked pots. 1718.3 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA ~ / 1713.7 61 / / / I 1713.7 / o~s 1717.5 Fig. 26. Painted grey ware deep bowls. I 62 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 1708.13 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1701.2 1706.2 1808.1 111Ci8.5 1608.2 2800.2 1704.4 1700.3 1808.3 ';ot:77 2810.7 Fig. 27. Painted grey ware small and deep bowls. 1718.8 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Fig. 28. Gray ware bowls. 63 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 64 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 29. Gray small ware pots. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 65 a.1610.1 c.1900.4 d.1602.1 NS 8.140411.27 Fig. 30. Bichrome and polychrome vessels a: black and red on buff ware jar; b: black, yellow, brown and green jar; c: red and yellow on buff ware jar; d: black, yellow, red and white jar; e: red, green and very light green, Fugitive beaker. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 66 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Group 7. Pattern of curved lines, abstract "cloud", "course of water" or "sky". Composition of curved lines. (Fig. 31: b. nos. 53-57). Group 8. Pattern of crossed lines, abstract "trees": composition of two curved lines and one vertical line (Fig. 31: b. nos. 58-59) Group 9. Pattern of lines, abstract "man": two curved and one vertical line, two curved and two parallel horizontal lines (Fig. 31: b. nos. 60--63) Group 10. Straight crossed lines, 'abstract "house" (Fig. 31: b. no. 64) Group 11. Pattern of crossed lines: abstract "bird" (Fig. 31: b. nos. 65-67) Group 12. Pattern of lines, similar to Latin alphabet: Upside-down "A" and "K", "B" and "N" (Fig. 31: c. nos. 68-74) Group 13. Pattern of lines, similar to Latin alphabet: composition of two crossed diagonal lines: "V", three lines: "W'' (Fig. 31: c. nos. 75-82) Group 14. Pattern of two diagonal crossed lines "X" (Fig. 31: c. nos. 83-90) Group 15. Pattern of lines similar to Latin alphabet and numbers: "Y", "Z", "4" and "+" (Fig. 31: c. nos. 91-96) Group 16. Pattern of various lines, curved, parallel diagonal, vertical and crossed diagonal lines. (Fig. 31: c. nos. 97-103). Group 17. Two crossed vertical and horizontal lines "L" (Fig. 31: c. no. 104) b. Incised marks Group 1. Vertical lines (Fig. 31: d. nos. 1-3) Group 2. Parallel vertical lines (Fig. 31: d. no. 4) Group 3. Angles, vertical and horizontal, diagonal and horizontal, horizontal and diagonal (Fig. 31: d. nos. 5-10) Group 4. Crossed lines: "X", "+" (Fig. 31: d. nos. 11-16). Group 5. Parallel curved lines (Fig. 31: d. nos. 17-20) Group 6. Pattern of two curved and one vertical line (Fig. 31: d. nos. 21-22) Group 7. Pattern of two curved and two vertical lines (Fig.31:d.nos.23-24) Group 8. Semicircular shape (Fig. 31: d. nos. 25) Group 9. Semicircular shape with an apophasys (Fig. 31: d. no. 26) Group 10. Wavy lines (Fig. 31: d. nos. 27) Group 11. Composed lines (Fig. 31: d. nos. 28-32) Group 12. Dots (Fig. 31: d. no. 33) c. Painted marks Group 1. Diagonal lines (Fig. 31: e. no.1 0) Group 2. Parallel vertical lines (Fig. 31: e. no.2) Group 3.: Horizontal bands (Fig. 31: e. no.3) Group 4. Two crossed diagonal lines (Fig. 31: e. no. 4) Group 5. "+"(Fig. 31: e. no. 5) Group 6. Two "+" (Fig. 31: e. no. 6) Group 7. Three "+" (Fig. 31: e. no. 7) Group 8. One spot of colour (Fig. 31: e. no. 8) Group 9. Two spots of colour (Fig. 31: e. nos. 9-1 0) Group 10. Three spots of colour (Fig. 31: e. no.11) ALABASTER VESSELS (Fig. 33: a-i) by R. Shirazi After pottery, alabaster is the most commonly used material at Shahr-i Sokhta. The alabaster vessels of Shahr-i Sokhta have been widely studied by R. Ciarla (Ciarla 1979; 1989; 1990). Among a total of 112 furnished graves, 34.9% contained at least one alabaster vessel. According to the available data, alabaster vessels are mostly found in graves where, in addition to pottery vessels, there were also stone beads made of different kinds of semi-precious stones. Three out of five stone beads found in IUL.1515 are made of lapis lazuli covered with a narrow golden band. One is a cornelian bead and another one is a white coloured bead, also covered by a golden band. In graves IUG.l413, IUK.1614a, in addition to alabaster vessels, a kid was found as well. Some graves contain only a fragment of an alabaster vessel. In IPB.2302, the grave of a newborn, parts of a conical alabaster vessel were found. According to the available data (Fig. 34: a), there is no difference between males and females in possession of alabaster vessels. The rare presence of alabaster vessels in children's graves could suggest that alabaster was used mainly for adult burials. Alabaster vessels are present in all graves attributed to all periods. Most vessels, 82%, are attributed to periods I and II and the remaining 18% belongs to periods III and IV (Fig. 34:b). The decrease of number of alabaster objects found in periods III and N is due to the decline of number of graves for these periods. This is clearly related to the reduced population of the city and the fact that a much smaller area was covered in periods III and IV. Although alabaster vessels were found in all grave types, most of them came from bi-partite graves. It is I / I I --- '-..... ""' 20 19 18 '-- 17 "' 'V 81 82 \j/ 80 c. Scraped Marks r-1 - 72 'V 79 90 89 88 ~ 71 ~ g 73 74 " 77 d.. 70 "" 85 86 87 r )( >< '1- >< y. X 84 v 76 69 96 95 94 93 99 98 97 103 10~ 101 47 46 45 44 43 * ;::,k * * .r v 52 51 50 49 48 ~ ,.v, 1>б .. ?"' . 104 J XVII ~ "'\ ~ ){ l ~ L - -- ~ -- ~ ----- ---=~- -~ ....z:; 59 58 ~~~ i:~ 24 ~~ -r ...""' - ~ J)J>J) ~ 23 22 21 20 19 17 18 -+ + IS 16 X 14 Incised Marks 57 56 55 54 53 VII d. Incised Marks 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 7 ~ ..JI ~ II '/ I 5 1 2 3 4 .--vv; lA ;1\ ~ VI Fig. 31. Potter's marks. b. Scraped Marks XVI 100 ,J I ( ( _____,- ~ ~ --) L IV + +- ..-1- 4 )<, 92 'f.. 83 v 75 y 91 ;x 42 XV 1=- \:::: \~ 111 41 40 XIV 'V 78 Ill '" 0 39 37 38 XIII 68 XII 29 28 (\.. .....___.~- =,, :::;::; 36 22 23 24 25 26 27 '"" '"" 35 III 21 ~ 30 '---.../' 31 : ...__...,. 32 33 '--------' 34 "-- 16 15 a. Scraped Marks 8 9 10 7 6 s .....___.... \ 3 '--- ._____... 13 14 "--./ 12 \ 2 4 ......___, I 1 ll II I 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 ......~ ..... ~ ~ ~~ t ~ \ y u *t- VIII 63 62 61 60 I ~ n ??tJIJ R.Q ,, ,. ~ .. ? "tt .... .../ -+ II I 67 66 65 Painted Marks 64 X e. Painted Marks 12 11 10 6 7 8 9 5 4 3 2 1 1~1 I :::. I ~ -I- IX Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 "" ""'\ .)_. XI tTl z 0 0'1 -..J > :X ...., ~ 0 [ /) ' :::0 - > :X :X [/) ~ [/) -~ ("') :X Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 68 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 32. Potters marks. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Fig. 33. Alabaster Vessels. 69 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 70 TABLE 4. Frequency of alabaster vessels in relation with other grave goods. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 No. Grave No. 1 1201 Sex Grave Type Period No. of Objects M 2 I 9 I IV Alabaster Vessels Shape 1 conical bowl 14 1 conical bowl 63 5 mortars, cylindrical bowl, flagon conical bowl Note 2 1300 F 2 3 1400 F 2 4 1402 ? 1 1 1403 ? "' F 1 5 9 III 6 1 6 1410 F 2 I 8 1 cylindrical mortar conical bowl 7 1412 M 2 I 7 1 conical bowl 8 1413 M 2 1 chalice goat kid 1414 M 1 I I 6 9 11 1 conical bowl 10 1416 F 2 I 7 1 conical bowl goat kid stone beads stone bead 11 1503 M 2 ? 1 2 12 1515 M 2 I 8 2 13 1516 M 2 I 8 2 conical bowl 14 1517 M 2 I 7 1 conical bowl stone bead goat kid lapis lazuli comelian 15 1601 M 2 II 8 1 conical bowl 16 1610 F 1 II 6 1 conical bowl 17 1613 F 2 I 6 1 M 2 I 3 1 comelian, limestone stone bead 19 1615 M 4 III 56 1 20 1700 ? 2 II 8 1 stone bead seal conical Bowl goat kid stone beads hi-conical goat kid chalice bone/metal tools cylindrical carnelian jade, flagon mortar conical bowl 7 1 conical cowl Bead, cloth 6 1 conical bowl goat kid 12 I conical bowl goat kid 6 1 conical bowl 11 2 conical bowl stone bead stone bead 18 1614a 23 1706 M 2 24 1710 Child 1 I I I II 25 1716 F 2 I 21 1703 F 2 22 1704 M 2 8 I 10 I conical bowl 3 1 conical bowl 27 1900 F 2 I I 29 2501 ? 2 II 30 2505 Child 1 II 3 1 conical bowl 31 2513 M 2 I 10 2 conical bowl 26 1717 F hi-conical chalice conical bowl 2 flagon, seal mat, basket comelian, lapis lazuli goat kid. bone tools EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA No. Grave No. Sex Grave Period Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Type No. of Objects 71 Alabaster Shape Note Vessels 33 2703 ? 2 I 12 1 34 2801 F 2 I 6 1 35 2810 M 2 I 14 2 36 37 38 2811 2812 2902 F Child I 1 1 stone bead conical bowl shell beads II 4 2 1 conical bowl II F 2 1 2 1 conical bowl 39 2903 M 2 II 3 1 cylindrical flagon interesting to note that this type also contained, in addition to the alabaster objects, a larger number of kids, ornamental beads and seals when compared to any other grave type (Fig. 34:c). The majority of graves (84.6%) contained only one conical alabaster bowl, but in certain graves more than one vessel was found. The only grave with more than two vessels was a catacomb, IUG.1400, which had four different alabaster vessels. While the vessels of other graves usually consisted of conical shaped bowls, the vessels from IUG 1400, were four different sized and shaped mortars. Typology of alabaster vessels (Fig. 35: a-n) Typologically, the alabaster vessels of the graveyard are divided into two main groups, conical and cylindrical vessels: 1. Conical Vessels Conical shaped vessels have been produced widely in the basin of the Hynnand civilisation at Mundigak and Shahr-i Sokhta (Ciarla 1979). According to the shape of the vessels and their distribution, one can assume that there was a mass production of this type of bowls in the whole area. The production of this shape was much quicker than other, more complicated, shapes needing less energy and time. Conical bowls have a very smooth profile. The size of this group of vessels is varied: the height of the side ranges from 2.5 to 13 em., and the width of the opening is between 4.9 and 19.3 em. These vessels conical Bowl three skeletons conical bowl limestone comelian beads conical bowl, comelian/ hi-conical lapis lazuli metal dagger chalice bone tool have a flat base, straight and bevelled rims. Conical vessels are subdivided into conical and hi-conical shapes. la. Conical vessels: the base of the cone is the open mouth of the vessel. These bowls make up the most popular group of vessels in the graveyard and are divided into three different groups : la.l. Tall Vessels: IUB.1201/3, IUC.l300/9, IUG.141017, IUG.1412/1, IUG.l414/ll, IUG.1416/4, IUL.l516/1, IUL.1516/5, IUL.1517/4, IUA.1700/1, IUA.1703/5, IUA.1704/6, IUA.1706/11, HYE.2505/1, HTR.2703/10, IUF.2812/1, HYJ. 2902/1 la.2. Medium Vessels: IUG.1403/6, IUK.l613/5, IUA.1710/6, HYБ.2501/2, HYБ.2513/4, HTR.2702/11, IUF.2801/3, IUF.2810/12 la.3. Small Vessels: IUK.1610/3, IUA.l71717, HRJ.1900/5 lb. Hi-conical vessels: This group consists oftwo cones attached to each other. The area of the base of the bigger cone is the mouth of the vessel and the area of the base of the smaller cone is the base of the vessel. A total of three hi-conical vessels were found: IUG.l413/6, IUK.1614a/1, IUF.2810/ll. 2. Cylindrical vessels The main shape of this group of alabaster vessels is cylindrical. These are divided into four groups: 2a. Simple cylinder shape or small mortars. These are very simple vessels with a closed mouth, flaring rim and flat base; IUG.l400/60, IUG.1403/6, HYJ.2903/2. 1/! :/~. и-и -и- - -- - I _ _ __ -- Type4 TypeS Type2 I c. Distribution of Alabaster vessels according to the grave types Type9 a Distribution of Alabaster vessels according to the sex of the inhumed 2...V/ 1~ 4~- 6-V / /' 1 :;;--~~-ииии s( u./ ~~--i /i - 16~..-' /8 20-/ / - \ \ \ \ II ~ Ill ~ IV " и==- =-- . .. и- Fig. 34. Alabaster vessels. +2 vessels 2 vessels - -ииии--ииии -.. иии-------' ? I vessel .. и и - - - - - - - - d. Number of vessels in the graves --и---~и - - - - ... и- ....?.. ии-иии и--и - ~ t~---= ~e::-:. :f 8 10 -и E~=[и~~~----и-~--~------ --=------и- ~- - - и - 22.~~- ut ::f ~!I~ b. Distribution of Alabaster vessels according to the period of occupation 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 r/J 1:!:1 t:J ,..., e'""" r/J > z r/J ,..., ?:' 1:!:1 "1::1 'Tj o > t- z ?:' e 0 '- -....J N EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 73 b.2501.2 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 2 I 0 e.1700.1 C;2513.4 ? I d.1416.4 I I L.....L-L-1 0 1 2 I I I 0 1 2 I 3 3 g.1400.26 ............... 0 t 2 3 j.1416a.1 i.2810.11 0 1<.1615.24 2 t I sI [[] n.1400.53 1.2903.2 0 I ? S I Fig. 35. Alabaster vessels. 1 2 3 I JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 74 2b. Concave cylinders. These are cylindrical mortars with a concave body, flat base and everted rim; IUG.l400/23, 53, IUG.l615/24. 2c. High-base cylinders. These are cylindrical mortars with a flat rim, straight body and high base, IUG.l400/6. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 2d. Cylindrical body. These are another type of simple mortars with everted rim, IUG.l4'00/27. SMALL FINDS by S. Baghestani 1. Seals Five of the 112 burials with objects yielded one seal each, i.e. two cylinder seals and three compartmented seals made of alabaster, limestone and copper/bronze (Table 5). The low percentage of burials with seals (c. 4.5%) differs significantly from that of previous campaigns by the Italian mission. 28 All graves are simple (IUK.1605, IUK.l610) or bi-partite pits (HRJ.l900, IUL.l505, IUA.l713), belonging to females, except for IUA.l713 (Fig. 36: a). The fact that seals are predominantly assigned to women should be related to their function as controllers of domestic food supplies, as already proposed by the author (Baghestani 1997: 149-52). The presence of seals near the femur of the skeletons of Graves IUK 1605 and IUK 1610 indicates that they were probably attached to their owners' belt and not to their arms or chests. Both cylinder seals are made of limestone, resembling some of the impressions found earlier on the site (Amiet 1983: 199-210; Amiet & Tosi 1978). The first seal from grave IUK.l61 0 is decorated with striated opposite triangles similar to the more sophisticated hut motif of Piedmont style seals and should thus be dated later than Early Dynastic I. The grave inventory, a richly painted pot and a pear-shaped beaker typical of period II, both corroborate this date (Fig. 36: a. 1610.5). The second cylinder seal (1900/3) (Fig. 36: a. 1900.3) is rather simply decorated with a zigzag line enclosed by three parallel rows, probably an abbreviation of the herringbone pattern. It is similar to a cylinder seal from Tell Braq and an archaic seal impression from Ur, dated to the middle of the third millennium B.C. (Amiet 1983: 200 fig. la; Collon 1987: 23 fig. 50). Furthermore, grave HRJ.l900 contained seven plain and painted Buff Ware vessels from Period II, an alabaster cosmetic flagon and a copper wand. Grave IUL.l505 yielded a square compartmented seal of white stone, probably alabaster, with a high arcshaped handle (Fig. 36: a. 1505.16). It is decorated with a voided cross, frequently attested for square and circular chlorite seals from Shahr-i Sokhta and is comparable with a seal impression from the Shahdad cemetery (Hakemi 1997: 672, Mb.l, no. 37 stamped marks). Two metallic compartmented seals from periods II and III, most likely made of copper alloys, are hitherto unparalleled. The openwork square seal IUA.l713/5 (Fig. 36: a. 1713.5) is heavily corroded and bears a tiny, broken arc-shaped handle at the rear. It is decorated with eight alternating openwork circles and triangles, TABLE 5. Glyptics. Inv.no. Material Type Dimension (em.) Shape, decoration 1610/5 limestone, white limestone, light grey cylinder seal 1: 3.5, d.: 1.2 cylinder seal 1:2, IUK.1610 (f) p. I-II Piedmont style zigzag pattern HRJ.1900 (f) p. I-II 1900/3 1505/16 alabaster 1605/17 Cu-br 1713/5 Cu-br Provenance, Date gender d.: 1.1 compartmente d seal compartmente d seal 1.7 X 1.7, t.: 0.3 1: 2.3, w.: 2.9, t.: 0.4 compartmente 2.7 X 2.5, t.: 0.2 d seal IUL.1505 (f) per. I square, cross voided standing bird IUK.1605 (f) per. III (bustard) square, rosette IUA.1713 (m) per. II L.: length; D.: diameter; W: width; Th.: thickness Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA symmetrically arranged around a central circle to form a rosette. Incised lines surround the circles and triangles. This seal proves that openwork appears on metallic compartmented seals at Shahr-i Sokhta as early as period II. On the other hand, it is a perfect example for common motifs of metallic and lithic compartmented seals. 29 Again the nearest parallel is a seal impression from the Shahdad cemetery (Hakemi 1997; Baghestani 1997: 277, figs. 360-61). IUK.1605/15 represents a fat standing bird with stylised plumage, probably a bustard (Fig. 36: a.1615.15). This seal is extraordinary both for its design and technique. Three thin metal strips, forming the outline, interior decoration and the feet, were soldered on a plaque, which was subsequently cut into shape to fit.JO 2. Beads Thirty-nine burials (or 35% of all) yielded 426 beads, either separately or as part of bracelets and necklaces, almost equally attributed to women ( 16 burials) and men (15 burials) and more rarely to infants (3 burials) (Fig. 37: a-j). The gender of five deceased with beads could not be identified. The majority of the burials are dated to periods I-II along with some rare examples from subsequent periods. Shahr-i Sokhta beads are made of a great variety of materials, especially semi-precious stones, i.e. lapis lazuli (Fig. 38: a), comelian, chalcedony, turquoise and probably jasper. Further materials are alabaster, limestone or calcite, bone, shell and terracotta (Table 6).3 1 Gold, also used for decorating lapis beads, is as rare as light green kaolin, glass paste and frit, which obviously were meant to replace more valuable turquoise beads. Except for lapis or turquoise, most semi-precious stones are available from nearby mountainous areas. According to petrologic examinations of waste samples from the 75 site, lapis was imported from ancient quarries in the Pamir Mountains, Sar-i Sang in Badakhshan (Afghanistan) and the Chagai Hills in Pakistan (Delmas & Casanova 1990: 502). Ancient turquoise mines have been reported in the vicinity ofNeishabur on the eastern slopes of the Elburz Mountains and in the Kyzylkum area (Tosi 1974, 148 ff.). Beads of comelian, a reddish coloured variety of chalcedony, are most often recorded (155 items), followed by beads of limestone or calcite (124 items), lapis (54 items, 6 with a gold strip), chalcedony (41 items), turquoise (8 items) and jasper (1 item) (Fig. 39: b). Earlier excavations of the cemetery yielded different distribution figures, especially for periods II-III, when turquoise beads prevailed (Tosi 1974: 157). Except for a bracelet with twelve shell beads, other materials such as jasper, kaolin, glass paste and terracotta were more rarely utilised (Fig. 39: b). Only two genuine gold beads of ovoid shape were found with a female burial in IUA.1703. The third example from the infant burial IUL.1515 was plated with gold. It was found together with a cylindrical lapis bead, decorated with a thin strip of gold. Similar lapis beads with one gold strip were found in IUF.2809/1, whereas the examples from IUK.1607 are framed by two gold strips. Most beads were produced locally as demonstrated by large amounts of wasters from the Craftsmen Area in squares EWK /EWP. This is also proven by grave HTR.2701, which contained a "hoard" with lithic drillheads, blades and unfinished beads, certainly belonging to a craftsman (Fig. 38: ~). The beads from the cemetery can roughly be divided into circular and flat types according to the section. Eleven types have been distinguished so far. Annular beads of different sizes are often found singly, while cylindrical and semi-conical beads appear most frequently in pairs ;:tS elements of necklaces. When TABLE 6. Beads. Inv.no. Material Item 1300/11 bead stone, grey 130112 2 beads stone, red and blue 1404 a/ 45 bead stone, black 1408/10 necklace, 21 beads 1410/9 necklace, 54 beads 10 comelian, 10 limestone., 1 chalcedony 22 limestone, 15 comelian, 8 lapis, 8 chalced., 1 turquoise D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 3.4 3.7 1.1 1 Provenance, gender Period IUC.1300 (f) I IUC.1301 (m) ? IUG.l404a(m) IV IUG.1408 (m) IV IUG.1410 (i) I 76 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Inv.no. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1414/1 Item bead Material Stone D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 3.5 Provenance, gender Period IUG.l414 (m) I IUG.l414 (m) I IUG.l416 (f) I 1414/10 necklace, 20 beads 10 cornelian, 10 limestone 1416/5 bead Brown stone 151111 3 beads 1 carnelian, 2 limestone IUL.1511 (i) ? 151311 2 beads Turquoise, chalcedony IUL.l513 (m) ? 1515/7 5 beads IUL.1515 (m) I 1516/9 3 beads 1 gold plaited, 3 lapis (1 w. !fold strip), 1 chalcedony turquoise, cornelian, limestone IUL.l516 (m) II 151717 necklace, 24 beads IUL.l517 (m) II 1519/9 bead 12 carnelian, 12limestone or calcite beige alabaster 1520/8 bead 1601/8 1604/4 3.8 1.1 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.7 3.4 1 IUL.1519 (m) I beige alabaster 3.3 1.1 IUL.1520 (f) I bead beige alabaster 3.3 1.2 IUK.l601 (m) II bead red stone 3.4 1 IUK.l604 (f) I 1605/20 bead cornelian 3.1 1.5 IUK.l605 (f) III 1607/4 5 beads IUK.l607 (m) II 1610/4-5 2 beads 2 carnelian, 3 lapis (2 w. gold strips) pinkish carnelian, black stone IUK.l610 (f) II? 1613/3-4 2 beads IUK.l613 (f) II IUK.l615 (m) II IUA.l702 (f) II? IUA.l703 (f) II? 1615/ 56--57 2 beads 2.8 1.6, grey and buff terracotta 3.5; 1.8 1; 0.8 veined chalcedony, dark green jasper 1 cornelian, 4 bone, 1 chalcedony 52 cornelian, 8 limestone, 8 lapis, 3 chalcedony, 2 gold 0.6; 1.5 1702/3 6 beads 1703/6 necklace, 73 beads 1716/11 bead stone 1717/8 bead 1718/6 1 -; 3.5 2.9; 4.7 3 1.1 IUA.l716 (f) I terracotta 3.5 1 IUA.l717 (f) II bead stone 0.4 1.6 IUA.l718 (m) II? 1901/1 bead stone HRJ.l901 (f) ? HRJ.l902 (-) ? GTS 2000_(5, 1 f, 1 m, 2 i, 1 nd) . IBP.2300 (f) II 2 turquoise, 1 chalcedony HYE.2501 (-) II? 3 beads limestone, frit, chalcedony llYN .2600 (-) II 2701/8 3 beads HTR2701 (-) II 2800/7 3 beads limestone, chalcedony, unfinished turquoise, lapis, white stone IUF.2800 (m) II IUF 2801 (f) I IUF.2809 (f) ? 1902/1 bead stone 2000/6--8 3 beads turquoise, glass paste 2300/4-6 3 beads chalcedony, glass paste, kaolin 2501/3 3 beads 2600/4 2801/5 necklace, 91 beads 2809/1 necklace, 14 beads 46 cornelian, 44 limestone, 1 lapis 14 lapis (3 w. gold strip) 0.7-0.8 av. 0.3 0.5-0.6 OA-0.7 ? EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Item Inv.no. Material D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 77 Provenance, gender IUF.2810 (m) Period II 2810/13 necklace, 49 beads 2811/3 bead 13 comelian, 14 limestone, 13 lapis, 8 chalcedony, 1 turquoise veined alabaster IUF.2811 (m) II? 2811/5 necklace, 17 beads 3 lapis, 14 chalcedony IUF.2811 (m) II? 2812/2 necklace, 12 beads shell IUF.2812 (i) II 3.4 1.1 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 D.: diameter; Th.: thickness; L.: length combined, semi-conical beads form a hi-conical element, resembling elongated hi-conical beads of a larger size (type 7), which mostly occur as single beads. Flat triangular, conical, lozenge-shaped and lentoid beads (types 8-11) are more rarely found. They either appear as single beads (2501/3) or as central parts of necklaces (2810/13). Fifteen, or 40%, of the burials contained a large single bead of the annular type (diameter: 2.8-3.7 em., thickness: 1-1.6 em.). They are made of stone, alabaster or terracotta and are found in connection with both male and female burials of all periods. In some cases (IUG.1414, IUF.2811) they appear together with necklaces. Salvatori and Vidale labelled comparable objects from the Central Quarters as spindle whorls, an identification to be excluded for extant examples, which show no traces of abrasion at the central perforations. (Salvatori & Vidale 1997: 77, fig. 249, 1-6). In sum, this evidence indicates that these "beads" were not made for decorative purposes, but for a specific function, perhaps apotropaic or for a still unknown funerary rite. They were mostly found in the pelvic area or near the femur. The example from burial IUG.1404a was still threaded on to a 10 em. long wooden stick (1404 a/45), whose function is also unknown. Fifteen, or 40%, of the burials contained two to six beads, most frequently found near the head, pelvis, femur or at the feet of the deceased. In some cases they were inside vessels, which suggests a dedicatory rather than ornamental function. Only ten or one-quarter of the burials contained necklaces, predominantly belonging to male deceased. The high percentage of male burials with necklaces (6 items) suggests a dedicatory function, too. Necklaces consist of 12 beads (IUF.2812) to 91 beads from the female burial IUF.280 1. There is a clear predilection for combining red (cornelian) and white (limestone or calcite), sometimes associated with single beads made oflapis, turquoise, chalcedony and even gold (1408/10, 2801/5). Lapis beads are frequently combined with whitish translucent chalcedony (281115). 3. Metal objects Very few metal objects were recovered; they were mainly cosmetic wands, pins, weapons and implements. Most of them are greenish corroded, indicating copper as the initial ore3 2 (Table 7). 3 .1. Mirrors Two mirrors in the shape of simple and slightly concave discs with flattened edges were found in female burials from periods III-IV (1400/58 and 1605/14). Mirrors of this type are widely attested at Iranian sites, e.g. Susa and the Shahdad cemetery, but are also known from Bactria (Northern Afghanistan) and Margiana (Turkmenistan). 33 IUC.1400/58 was found inside a circular wooden box (1400/57), lying in a basket. 3 .2. Wands and pin Metal wands and a pin were recovered from eight burials, dating to periods II-III (Fig. 36: c). Four wands belong to females, aged 18-50 (IUG.l400, IUK.l605, IUA.1705, HRJ.1900), one to a child (IUG.1408) and two to males, aged,.45-57 (IUG.1405, IUK.1615). All were accompanied by a small lithic or clay flagon, which served most likely as a cosmetic container. The wands vary from 12.5 em. to 18 em. in length with a maximum diameter of 0.5 em. The pin from HMY.1800 is much shorter and slightly thicker. Five types have been identified, including a pin, on the basis of its similarity to one of the wand types. Pin 1800/3 ends in an S-shaped tip, much resembling a needle (type 1). The first of four wand types has an additional detached hook-shaped protrusion. Wands with flat lozenge-shaped tips are most often recorded, including an indented variety (1615/55), 78 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES II? 181M Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 . ? . 1!105.16 1606.17 1713.5 a. Seals ~~ ии' ~; :~ 2000.5 - D 130LI 2302.2 16148.4 ~ 2513.8 2513.10 Cl~]~ b. Bones y 2 3b 3a 4 c. Wands/Pins Type L 18003- Type 2. 19003- Type 3a. 1400.6111405.23- Type 3b. 1615.55- Type4. 1605.15- Type 5. 1408.7 Fig. 36. Seals, bones and wands/pins. 79 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 c. 1517 d. 2811 b.2810 a. 2801 '$""\ f /~ g. 2800 J I ~ " f. 1515 j.2300 i. 2510 h. 1511 e.1703 Fig. 37. Necklaces and beads. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 80 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 81 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA TABLE 7. Metal objects. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Inv.no. Item Mat L. (em.) W.(cm.) Th. (em.) D. (em.) Provenience, gender Period. 1400/58 mirror culbr 0.2 8.8 IUG.l400 (f) 1605/14 mirror culbr 0.2 7.5 IUK.l605 (f) III 1400/61 wand culbr 12.5 0.4 IUG.l400(f) IV 1405/23 wand culbr 18 0.5 IUG.l405 (m) III 140817 wand culbr 0.3 IUG.l408 (i) IV 1605/15 warid culbr 12.7, tip: 1.1 x2.5 16 0.3 IUK.l605 (f) III 1615/55 culbr 14 0.6 IUK.l615 (m) II culbr Max. 8.7 0.3-0.5 IUA.1705 (f) III 1900/3 wand, fragment wand, fragment wand culbr 17.7 0.3 HRJ.l900 (f) II 1800/3 pin culbr 8 0.6 HMY.l800 (-) II 1614 a/ 2-3 2 daggers, fragmentary tip of a triangular blade triangular blade 3 rods, fragment culbr - IUK.1614 a (m) II culbr 4.8 IUA.1708 (i) II culbr 20 IUF.2810 (i) II culbr 3.7, 3.8; 4.4 HYE.2504 (-) I? 1705/53 1708/11 2810/10 2504/5 max. 6 which resembles a stepped cross. Similar pins are frequently attested at looted "Bactrian" burials (Pottier 1984). Type 4 is also indented, but has an oval outline. It compares to an example from Altyn Depe, found in a Namazga IV period burial (Masson 1988, pl. XXXVII, 5). 3.3. Weapons and implements Metal weapons are extremely rare and were only recovered from three burials, all dating to period II. The best preserved example is a long triangular blade with a straight tang from grave IUF.2180, belonging to an 11year-old child. The infant burial IUA.l708 yielded a second blade, from which only the tip survived. Comparable blades come from the Gonur cemetery, Khurab and Susa, all dating to the Ur ill period (Pottier 1984: 14). Two daggers from the second male burial in grave IUK.1614 disintegrated when they came in contact with the air and were too fragmentary for restoration. Three rod fragments from grave HYE.2504, of the transitional period 1-11, are the only metal objects of this period recorded so far. Two of them have a flattened or globular tip and may have been used for bead making. 0.4 IV 4. Lithic objects 4.1. Flagons (Fig. 40: a-d) Seven burials, dating to periods 11-IY, contained small tubular, square or hom-shaped flagons, and were accompanied by copper/bronze wands. The flagons are usually attributed to females, but also appear in male (2) and infant (1) burials. Comparable, though larger objects from Turkmenistan and Bactrian sites, were identified as lamps on the basis of chemical analysis of the contents, a lead-based subs4ltlce (Pottier 1984: 38f., fig. 37, 261--64; pl. XXXI, 261.264). Shahr-i Sokhta's flagons are too small for such an analysis, but they certainly served as containers for cosmetic substances, i.e. kohl. All flagons are made of alabaster, chlorite or clay and have a separate lid with a small cylindrical perforation in order to fit the wand. The lid is usually made of the same material, except for the example from grave IUG.l408, which has a black chlorite trunk and a lid of white, veined alabaster. Three types of flagons are attested, covering the whole chronological range. The first and apparently earliest type consist of flagons which are almost JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 82 TYPE MATERIAL p GRAVE 1.Annular Alabaster, carnelian, terracotta 0 = == 0 10 2. Cylindrical Chalcedony, kaolin, lapis lazuli, =0 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 5. Globular == I иII Bone. carnelian, limestone lUG 1408/10,1UG 141019.1UG 14141110. IUL 151619. IUL 151717.1UA 170213.1UA 170316, IUF 260115. IUF 2810/13 1-11 IV lapis lazuli, chalcedony, lUG 141019.1UL 151517, IUA 170316.1BP 2300/4, HYN260014 0 =o limestone, gold, gold plated =и=и II II Frit, glass paste IBP 230015, HYN 260014 Alabaster, chalcedony, limestone lUG 1406110.1UL 151111.1UL 1515fl.IUK 1607/4. HYN 2600/4, IUF 281115.1UF 2810113 6. Elongated ovoid =o I иII IV --- - ? 7. Biconical ..., lUG 1411l/9,1UL 1515fl, IUL 151619. IUK 1607/4. IUA 170213. IUA 170316.1BP 2300/6. HYN 2600/4 IUF 260115,1UF 2809110,1UF 2810/13 lapis/gold, turquoise 3. Conical 4. Ovoid IUC 1300/11,1UC 130112.1UG 14048145, lUG 1414/1, lUG 141411,1UG 1416/5, IUL 151619.1UL 151919, IUL 152018. IUK 1601/8, IUK 1604/4, IUK 1605120. IUK 161014, IUK 1613/4, IUK 1615156, IUA 1702/3. IUA 170316.1UA 1716/11.1UA 1717/8,1UF 281113 Chalcedony, jasper lUG 141019.1UL 151311, IUK 1615157. HYE 250113, IUF 2810113.1UF 261115 1-11 B. Flat triangular ~ 0 lapis lazuli IUA281115 Chalcedony IUF 2810/13 II 9. Flat conical 40 II 10. lozenge-shaped 0 t Chalcedony, turquoise IUL 151311, IUA 170316 Turquoise HYE250113 II 11. Flat lentoid ? 0 II a. Preliminary typology of Shahr-e Sukheteh beads 180 155 160 140 124 120 100 80 60 20 ... 41 40 ft 1 1 ~ ~ 2 3 i i i... i= ~ 1 1 2 0 ~ i I' ...lJ ID i i 4 - ~.:..;. 1? 13 ? )> ~ (f &> ~ iIIi' "0I╗ .a'2 ... ?? c:0 m. ? i . ::1 !{ t ??? b. Materials used for bead making Fig. 39. Beads. I' ::1 i ;иg i9. r- f Д, ? 0 ::1 '< Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Fig. 40. Flagons 83 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 84 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 85 TABLE 8. Flagons. Inv.no. Item Material L. (em.) W. (em.) D. (em.) Provenance, Period Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 gender 1400/56 flagon 1405/17 flagon 1408/9 flagon alabaster, white alabaster 10.8 2.2-4.3 8.7 lUG 1400 (f) max.4 IV lUG 1405 (m) III lUG 1408 (i) IV IUK 1605 (f) III 1605/16 flagon chlorite, lid: alabaster alabaster 1615/54 flagon alabaster 7.4 max. 4.2 !UK 1615 (m) II 1705/54 flagon clay 5.8 2.1-4 IUA 1705 (f) III 1900/7 flagon alabaster 7 2.7-3.5 HRJ 1900 (f) I-II 1900/8 Lid alabaster 1 3.5 HRJ 1900 (-) I-II 4.2, lid: 0. 7 4.8 cylindrical and decorated with small, incised circles (1900/7). Flagons of the second type are more sophisticated and appear in period III. They are of conical shape and may be square (1605/16) or circular in section (1705/54, 1408/9). A variant with a slightly everted foot appears during the latest phase of Shahr-i Sokhta (1400/55-56). Most of these flagons have only a small cavity, except for 1705/54, which is hollowed out. Flagons of the third type are attested as early as period II. The cones with a curved tip remind us of an animal's hom (1405/17, 1615/54). All three types are attested from burials and domestic contexts at Altyn Depe (periods Namazga IV-V), the first type dating to the end of period V (Masson 1988: pl.XLI). Conical and tubular flagons are also recorded from illicit excavations in Bactria (Pottier 1984). 4.2. Lithic objects and tools (Fig. 38: b, d, e, f, g) Lithic objects and tools, predominantly for domestic and industrial purposes, were recovered from eight graves, dating to periods I-II. Two small flat stones from the male burial IUA.1718 and the infant burial HYE.2511 probably served as grinding slabs, perhaps for cosmetic substances. This is especially noticeable with the stone from the first burial, which has a very smooth surface. An oval stone with a shallow carved out cavity (1713/8) (Fig. 38: g) certainly served as a grinding slab for similar purposes. The rod-shaped object with triangular section and rounded ends from HYI.2903 may likewise be identified as a pestle. Plain cubical objects were found in burials IUL.1519 and HYI.2901 (Fig. 37: f). The frrst made of volcanic rock and weighing only 75 grams, has one evenly smoothened surface and may have been used for polishing skins or comparable soft materials. Grave 1.2-2.5 HYI.2901 yielded a second lithic object of spherical shape with unknown function, presumably a sling stone. Besides unfinished beads and wasters, burial HTR.2701 contained a set of five minute, partly broken cylindrical drill-heads made of jasper with ascending diameters (19-26 mm.) and several intact or fragmentary flint blades with triangular section, all well-known lapidary tools. Its inventory compares to that of the gemcutter's graves G.12 and G.77 from earlier excavations (Piperno 1976: 9-14, fig. 2). The infant burial IUA.1708 yielded three further triangular flint blades. 5. Clay and terracotta objects Except for terracotta beads, very few other clay objects were recorded, all of which date to periods I-II. Grave IUL.1500 (period I-II) yielded a unique terracotta object resembling a stylised pomegranate with a tiny hole at the tip, which probably served as a perfume bottle (Fig. 38: h). Most probably, it belonged, to the female IUL.1500 a, who was accompanied by two infants. The function of th~bi-conical clay object from the male burial IUB.1201, which resembles an unfinished chalice, is uncertain. A small rectangular hole is preserved in the centre of its cavity, probably for holding a stick. Further items are a spindle whorl from the male burial IUK.1615 and a reel from the twelve-year-old infant's burialiUA.1700. 6. Bone objects (Fig. 36: b) Five burials from periods I-II contained bone objects, predominantly long flat sticks with sharpened ends 86 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES TABLE 9. Bone objects. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Inv.no. Item L. (em.) W. (em.) Th. (em.) Provenance, gender Period 1301/1 rod 16.5 1 0.1 IUC.1301 (m) ? 1614 a/4 rod 8.5 1 max. 0.5 em. IUK.1614 a(-) II 2000/5 7.7 1.4 0.4 GTS. 2000 (-) II 2302/2 rod, fragmentary rod 18.3 1.4 2513/8 awl 10.5 2513/10 edge of a lid 6.5 0.4 IPB.2302 (i) I-II Dm:0.7 HYE.2513 (-) I 1.5 HYE.2513 (-) I 1.7 (IUC.1301, IUK.1614a, GTS.2000, and IPB.2302). The sticks vary from 8.5-18.3 em. in length with a maximum width of 1.4 em. (Table 9). Their precise function is uncertain. A rod from the Italian excavations in grave IRD.311 was used for engraving or painting pottery (Piperno 1979: 132 f., fig. 7). Comparable ivory rods with geometrical decoration were found in the "priests' tomb" cf Masson 1988 at Altyn Depe, resembling an item from Mohenjo-Daro, which probably served as a game stick (Masson 1988: 65, pl.XIX, item 2; Anonymous 1987:273, fig. C 79c; Kenoyer 1998). The awl from HYE.2513 compares to those from the Eastern Residential Area and Central Quarters and is probably cut out of the ulna of a sheep or goat (Salvatori and Vidale 1997: 76). 7. Wooden burial objects Wooden objects are rare, but remarkably well preserved (Table 10). The majority was found in catacomb IUG.1400, a period IV collective burial with two females (IUG.1400, 1400a), a 50-60 year old male (IUG.1400b) and a 6--8 year old child (IUG.1400c). The most peculiar object is a circular mirror box (IUG.1400/57-58), consisting of a conical base with recessed edge, which fits a similarly shaped lid (Fig. 41: h). The mirror box lay inside a circular basket together with an intact, rectangular wooden comb with a crescentshaped handle (IUG.1400/62) (Fig. 41: g). It is matched by a fragmentary example from grave 1404, lying next to a male (Fig. 41: f). Comparable combs have already been found in the Eastern Residential Area and the Central Quarters (Tosi 1969: 365 f, figs. 207-8; Costantini 1977: 36--39; Salvatori & Vidale 1998: 76, fig. 243, 1-5). An ivory comb with incised circles from the Harappan layers of Miri Qalat (period IV) in Kech-Makran corroborates this late date (Besenval1997: 27, fig. 37). Further remains from the female burial IUG.1400 include a deep conical ladle with a short handle, lying inside a plain buff ware pot (IUG.1400/10), which clearly identifies it as a utensil for pouring liquids (Fig. 41: e). It bears a small suspension hole at the top, still containing a small wooden nail. The ladle is heavily riddled with holes, probably caused by termites.3 4 A perforated wooden cone from the same grave, which resembles a spindle whorl, is equally marked by insect damage (IUG.1400 b-c/10). It bears a TABLE 10. Wooden Objects. Inv.no. Item L. (em.) W. (em.) Th. (em.) D. (em.) 8.1 Provenance, gender Period 1400/55 ladle IUG.1400 (f) IV 1400/57 mirror box 2.9 17 IUG.1400 (f) IV 1400/57 lid 2.5 16 IUG.l400 (f) IV 1400/62 comb 9.3 4.1-8.2 IUG.1400 (f) IV 1404 a/ 73 8.5 6.5 IUG.1404 a (m) IV 1404 a/45 comb, fragmentary rod 1400 b--c/10 conical lid 10 1 2 3.5 IUG.1404 a (m) IV IUG.1400 b-e (m/i) IV EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA longitudinal perforation, still containing a small wooden nail. The cone served as a stopper for a small buff ware jar (IUG.l400 b-c/9), similar to clay stoppers from domestic contexts. A comparable wooden stopper was found in a kitchen in square RYL (Tosi 1969: 366, fig. 218; Costantini 1977: 27-29, Inv.no. 6183). Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 8. Basketry (Fig. 41: b-e, d; Figs. 10: b, d; 12: a-e) Seven graves yielded wickerwork products, well enough preserved to reconstruct the manufacturing techniques. Furnishing the grave with a rush mat, on which the deceased were laid, appears to be one of the peculiarities. of Shahr-i Sokhta's funerary customs. A different utilisation is attested from the Shahdad cemetery, where mats covered the deceased (Hakemi 1997: 62 f.). Shahr-i Sokha's rush mats were found in four burials, dating to periods II (HTR.2700, HRJ.1900) to IV (IUG.l400). While the mat from grave HRJ.l900 survived only in traces, the example from the female burial IUG.1400 is almost intact, measuring 130 x 50 em. (Fig. 10: d). The plaited mat is brownish, discoloured by the soil. Impressions of a similar mat were found on the floor of the so-called burial chamber of priests at Altyn Depe (excavation 7, room 7) (Masson 1988: 67, fig. 22.2). Circular baskets of different sizes appear more often and are attested throughout periods II-IY. The largest example (IUG.l400 b-c/13) has a diameter of33 em., and the fragmentary basket 140511 was preserved to a height of 12 em. Out of seven graves, one (IUG. 1414) contained up to five baskets, all attributed to a male. The infant buried nearby was equipped with the only wickerwork saucer recorded so far (IUG.1404 b/21 ). One of the females buried in grave IUG.l400 had four baskets, two of which contained vessels, mortars and cosmetic objects (IUG.1400/25, 1400/54). Baskets are usually made of twisted reed cords, which were curled up and fixed with thin strings of straw to form the bottom and the trunk. Altyn Depe's "chamber of priests" yielded the impression of a similar basket (Masson 1988: fig. 22.3). 9. Textiles and leather (Fig. 10: a-c) Fifteen graves yielded textiles, predominantly in a very poor state of preservation. In fact, most textiles 87 disintegrated, when getting in contact with the air. Except for some fragments from the richly furnished infant burial IUA.1707, the remaining examples are brownish, discolored and too carbonised for reconstruction.35 Given the state of the coarse texture found in the graves, we can assume that most probably the majority of funerary textiles served as shrouds. In some cases infants were wrapped inside a shroud, while adults were usually laid on a shroud and covered with two separate pieces of cloth. The texture of the cover is occasionally more delicate than the flooring cloth. In burialiUF.2802 the fragments were attached to the skull and the jaws of the male, and in burial IUL.1500 they still covered the femur of the infant. In one case at least the cover may have been decorated with beads (female burial IUA.l705). The only possible evidence for leather comes from the craftsman's grave HTR 2701. A small bag made of a reddish substance, containing a series of unfmished beads and wasters, disintegrated while opening the grave. Chemical analyses will have to prove the exact nature of the skin. 10. Conclusion The remarkable preservation of the small fmds from the burials helps significantly to elucidate the intricate funerary customs of Shahr-i Sokhta throughout the existence of this important site. The association of cylinder and compartmented seals with female burials compares well with the results of earlier excavations. This confirms that the females had an important role in the economical control of the city, and consequently had a rather high social position. With regard to the beads from periods I-11, a significant difference is noticeable in comparison to periods II-III. Locally available semi-precious and ornamental stones such as comelian and limestone prevail in contrast to periods II-III, when imported turquoise became predominant. Imitations of turquoise with light green kaolin and glass paste underline the popularity of this semi-precious stone in periods I-II. Later, it was much more easily available, which is demonstrated by the expansion of trade relations with the north and growing prosperity at Shahr-i Sokhta during period III. JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 88 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 SKELETAL REMAINS (1997-99): PRELIMINARY OBSERVATION (Fig. 42: a-b) by F. Forouzarifar From a total of 149 human skeletons found in 131 graves, thirty-seven, 25%, are males, thirty-three, 22%, are children, and twenty-nine, 19.5%, individuals are female. The remaining skeletons, fifty individuals, or 33%, could not be examined because of strong caries. Here only burials found during 1~7-99 are examined (Table 11 ). Skeletal remains are divided into three main groups: 1. Complete skeletons, 2. Incomplete skeletons, and 3. Not examinable skeletons. The last group consists of decayed and carious bones (IUL.1508, NAB.2400, HYN. 2600), or broken and very fragmentary bones, that at the present time cannot be studied in order to obtain useful data (HYN.2602, HTR.2702). Sometimes the data obtained is limited to the age, sex or stature of the individuals (IUB.l200, IUG.1415, IUL.1514, IUA.l704, HYE. 2503). Considering the above-mentioned factors, a total of twenty-eight skeletal remains were distinguished and grouped as not examinable samples, IRS.l1 00, IRS.llOl, IRS. 1102, IUG.1401, IUG.1402, IUL.1502, IUL.1508, IUL.1514, IUA.1701, IUA.1707, HMY.1800, HRJ.1901, HRJ.1902, GTS.2000, IPB.2301, IPB.2301a, IPB.2301b, NAB.2400, NAB.2401, HYE.2500, HYE.2501, HYE.2504, HYN.2600, HYN.2601, HYN.2602, HTR.2701, HTR.2702, HTR.2703a. In addition, on the basis of available data, we could not distinguish the sex of ten individuals. Considering the two factors of sex and age, skeletal remains are divided ino five groups, i.e. male, female, child, newborn and foetus. From a total of sixty-six adults, thirty-two female and thirty-four male, fifty-nine cases were examined. Skeletal remains of these individuals yielded, due to good grave condition and adequate skeletal preservation, good possibilities for examination. Table 11 shows the details of the graves and their individuals, including the number, state of preservation of the skeletons, and the age and sex of these individuals. For classification and interpretation of skulls fourteen indexes (Alexiev and Debetz 1964), and for bodies twenty indexes, were taken into consideration. 36 Remains of 1 to 12-year-old human skeletons (children, infants, newborn and foetuses) are classified as a unique group of designated children. As can be seen in Table 12, almost half of twenty-one children are buried together with an adult, most likely their father or mother. Among these samples, eight of them are newborn or foetuses, in three cases they are related to abortion, and in five other cases the newborn died before completing his first year oflife. All foetuses and infants, except for one, IUL.150 1, are buried together with an adult, most likely their father of mother. This last foetus was buried together with a female, from which only the lower part of body was found, together with a fragment of radius bone (Table 12). Traces of burning are visible on the remains of some skeletons. In the multiple burial, GTS.2000, skeletal remains of a young female, two children and two young TABLE. 11. Skeletal remains. Grave No. State of preservation of skeletal remains Skeleton Skull Tooth 1200 - 1201 not complete I - Age Body - 1300 examined not examinable not complete not complete not examinable examined examined complete 1301 examined examined 1400 examined 1400a not complete 1400b not complete 1400c 1403a Sex Age Calculated Approx. Age 40-45 - - M ? 55-60 53.6 F 30-35 36.9 M examined complete examined examined complete 16-18 - F examined examined not complete 45-50 43.7 F - - not complete 50-56 - F - - - 6-8 - Child examined examined examined not examinable complete 13-14 - F EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body - Sex - F Infant - Child 45-55 59.1 ? - M Child 30-40 - F 07-Aug - Child 50-55 53.7 M 1.5 Inf. Inf. 45-50 - F 30-40 - M 25-30 - M 25-30 - M 45-55 - M 40-45 - M 30-35 - F 10-12 - Child 30-40 - F complete complete not examinable complete 35-40 -2 2-3 42.2 F Inf. Inf. - 55-QO 25-30 Fetus 59.9 34.8 30-35 -1 - F Newborn Newborn - Newborn 1.5 - Inf. 40-50 - F -1 - Newborn - 1404b - 1405 1406 examined 1407 - 1408 - 1408a - 1409 - 1410 not complete not examinable not examinable examined complete examined not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete not complete not examinable not examinable examined not complete not complete 1411 - - - 1412 - - - 1413 - - - 1414 - -1 - 1414a - - - 1415 - - - 1415a - - - 1416 examined examined examined 1500 1500a 1500b examined examined examined - - - - - - examined examined examined examined - Age Approx. Age Age Calculated 45-50 1404a - 89 not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable complete ISOla 1503 1504 1505 1506 examined examined examined examined examined - - - 1507 - - - 1509 - - - 1510 - - - complete complete complete Not examinable Not examinable Not examinable not complete 1511 - - - not complete - - - M M 90 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body Age Age Approx. Calculated Age Sex 1512a examined examined examined complete 25-30 - F 1512b examined examined examined complete 45-50 53.7 M 1513 - - - 30-35 34.8 M 1514a - - - 10-12 - Child 1515 - not complete not complete not examinable not examinable not complete 12-14 - M 1516 - - not complete not complete 25-30 - M 1517 not complete examined examined not complete 45-50 57.8 M 1518 - - - 30-40 - F 1519 - - - 35-40 - M 1520 examined examined examined not examinable not examinable complete 1521 - - - 1600 - - - 45-40 33.6 F 40-45 - ? -5 - Child 35-40 - M 30-40 43.7 F 3-4 - Inf. F 1601 examined examined examined not examinable not examinable complete 1602 examined examined examined complete 1603 not complete examined not complete not complete 1604 examined examined examined complete 20-25 - 1605 - - - complete 20-25 - F 1606 examined - - Fetus - Fetus 1607 examined examined examined not examinable not complete 35-40 - M 1609 examined examined - not complete 35-40 - M 1610 examined examined examined complete 25-30 - F 12-14 - ? - - F 35-40 - F 35-40 - M 40-45 43.7 F 45-50 51.5 M Newborn 1700 - - - 1702 - - - 1703 - - - 1704 - - - 1705 - examined not complete not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete 1706 not complete examined examined not complete 1708 - - - - - 1709 - - 35-40 - M 1710 - not examinable complete - - not complete 10-11 - Child 1900 not complete - - not examinable 35-40 - F EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body 91 Age Age Approx. Calculated Age Sex examined examined complete 18-20 - F - - - not complete 5-7 - Child 2000d not complete not complete not complete not complete 10-11 - Child 2100 - - - 30--40 - F 2300 not complete examined examined not examinable not complete 53-60 61.6 F 2300a - - - 8-10 - Child 2302 - - - 2502 - - - 2503 - - - 2505 - 2506 - 2507 2000b examined 2000c - - Newborn 40-45 - ? 50-55 - ? - not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable complete 2-3 examined not complete 25-30 - Inf. examined - examined - 2-3 - Inf. 2508 - examined - not examinable not complete 40--45 - M 2508a - examined - 20-22 - F 2700 - - - 40-50 - ? 2703 - - - 50-60 - ? 2703b - - - 8-10 - Child 2800 not complete not complete examined 50-55 50 M 2801 - - - 30-35 - F 2802 - - - 35-40 - M 2803 - - - "12-13 - F 2804 - - - - - Newborn 2806 examined examined examined 25-30 - F - M not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete M 2807 - - examined complete 35-40 2808 examined examined examined not complete 45-50 2809 - examined examined not complete 22-25 - F 2810 - examined examined not complete 35-40 - M 2811 examined examined - not complete 45-50 - M 2812 examined - - not complete 7-8 - Child M JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 92 and sexually undetermined individuals were found. Most parts of the skeletons were burnt, their colour turning to brown. In another multiple burial, IUL.l500, belonging to a 35-40-year-old female and two infants, 1500a, 1500b, traces ofbuming are obvious. In the case of the skeleton of a 30-35-year-old corpulent male, IUC.l30 1, traces ofburning can be seen on fragments of the vertebral column, maxilla and frontal bone. Another case of is seen on the costal cartilage of a 60-year-old female, IPB.2300, the oldest individual ever found at Shahr-i Sokhta. Enlargement at the level of the central part of both parietal regions of a 4 year old girl's skull shows some signs of a hydrocephalic illness. This is the second case ofhydrocephalus at Shahr-i Sokhta.37 Almost all distinguished illness cases are due to hard physical activities or hard environmental conditions. A total of twenty cases oflumbar vertebral osteo-arthritis is present (IUG.l400b, IUG.l410, IUG.l412, IUL.l503, IUL.151 0, IUL.1512b, IUL. 1517, IUK.l609, IUK.l61 0, IUA.1703, IUA.1705, IUA.1706, IUA.1709, HYE.2502, HYE.2503, HYE.2508, IUF.2801, IUF.2807, IUF.2808, IUF.2810 and IUF.2811). Individuals above 30 years were plagued by this illness. Another common illness at Shahr-i Sokhta was the compression of the vertebrae at a younger age, IUG.l412, HYE.2502, IUF.2801, or deformation of vertebrae (compression, degeneration: IUG.1414, IUL.l519, IUL.l5121, IUA.1703, and IUF.2800). At a younger age this illness is due to the hard physical labour conditions at Shahr-i Sokhta. In male inhabitants it starts to appear around their thirtieth year and in females at 30 to 35 years of age. This indicates the equal participation of both sexes in everyday hard labour. Sex, stature and age of sixty-six adult individuals above twelve years, thirty-four male, thirty-two female, TABLE. 12. Approx. Age: New-born, Infants and Children. Grave No. Age Note 1400b 7 Buried together with 3 adult individuals 1403b 11 Buried together with a 13/15 year old female 1404b 3 Buried together with a 45-50 year old male 1406 - Buried individually 1408 7.5 Buried together with a 50 year old male 1409 1.5 Buried individually 1415a 11 Buried together with a 30-35 year old female 1500a 1.5 Buried together with a 37.5 year old female and another child 1500b 2.5 Buried together with a 37.5 year old female and another child 1501a Fetus Buried together with and adult female 1506 Infants Buried individually 1507 Newborn Buried individually 1507 3.5 Buried individually 1509 1.5 Buried individually 1511 Infant Buried individually 1514a 11 Buried together with an adult individual with undetermined sex 1600 5 Buried individually 1603 4 Buried individually, probably Hydrocephalus 1606 Fetus Buried individually 1708 Newborn Buried individually 2000c 6 Buried together with three adults and one child 2000d 10.5 Buried together with three adults and one child 2300a 9 Buried together with a 60 year old female 2302 Infant Buried individually 2505 2.5 Buried individually 2507 3 Buried individually 2703b 9 Buried together with two adults 2812 9 Buried individually EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 93 100% 87% 90% 1 _/ 70% Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 !ill% AO% 10% / I 7U 1% 1% 5 6 2% 2% 0 3 0% I L I I ------' 2 a. Percentage of number of skeletons in single Grave ---------27% -- /27% 25%~--/--r---% 20%~--/~-15%+-----------------~------------------------ /" 10%+-----/___,.....____-----.,..-_ 5%+----------~~--------------------------------------------------------- / 0%+------------r----------~------------~----------~----------~----------~ ~ ~ C ? F M b. Percentage of the inhumed (Fe= foetus, Inf. =infant, C =child,?= unidentified individual, F =female, M =male) Fig. 42. Percentage of burials Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 94 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES and eight newborn/infants and twenty-one children were examined. The stature of individuals are calculated on the basis of nine standard indexes. According to these calculations, the average stature of males is 162.7 em. The range of male stature starts from a very short height,150-155 em., to extremely tall, 190+ em., but the majority are between 158-175 em. Thus males could be classified as fairly short individuals between 160 to 165 em. The range of stature of females starts with extremely sllort, 140--145 em., to rather tall individuals, 165-170 em. The tallest females are between 150 to 165 em. The difference between average male and female stature is 8.1 em. The average age of individuals is calculated on the basis of the mean table, according to which, the death age for males is 26--53 and females 26--39 years. The oldest male, IUL.1503 and the oldest female, IUC.l300 and IPB.2300, were between 55-60 years old, while the middle average ofthe age of males was 39.2 and those offemales was 33.2 years. Notes For a detailed geological set up of the region see Jux and Kempf1983. Although British visitors to the region visited the site in the eighteenth century, its real archaeological discoverer was Sir Aurel Stein, the great Anglo-Hungarian explorer (Stein 1928). For almost ten years, an Italian expedition excavated this site. M. Tosi, was head of the expedition for several years and had an important role in presenting and introducing the importance of this site to the world of Iranian archaeology. Efforts and contributions of scholars such as M. Piperno, S. Salvatori, G. Bulgarelli, R. Biscione, L. Costantini, and other collabomtors of the expedition, were no less important. Thanks to their work, there now exists suitable and reliable information regarding different aspects of the society of Shahr-i Sokhta of the fourth and third millennium B.C. The bibliogmphy of Shahr-i Sokhta, regarding different aspects of archaeological research, has been compiled in different languages, mainly in English and Italian, and is very extensive. A list of publications on this site is available in Lazzari 1999. The correct translitemtion of the name of this site is: Sahr-e Suxteh, written also as Shahr-e Sukhteh. To continue with the tradition introduced by the Italian Expedition to the Middle Eastern archaeological litemture, we follow this form of transliteration. 4 The new series of excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta is currently carried out under the auspices of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO). The author would like to thank H.E. S.M. Beheshti, Vice-minister of the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance of I.R. of Iran and Geneml Director of the ICHO, for his support of this expedition. My warmest thanks also go to Mr J. Golshan, deputy director of the same organisation who, in addition to supporting the expedition on different occasions, made available all the facilities for this research. Mr N.N. Cheghini and Dr M. Azamoush, former and present directors of the Archaeological Service of ICHO, in addition to their support of this expedition, organised all the necessary facilities during the excavations. I would like to remember the kindness and interminable efforts of Mr Alireza Khosmvy, head of the local ICHO office in Zabol for easing the difficult working and living conditions of the members of the expedition. I would also like to thank KR.S. Sajjadi for his translation of this text into English. Finally I feel duty bound to mention the encouragement, indefatigable support and suggestions of my wife, Angela Di Giovanni Romano, in completing this work Members of the expedition during 1997-2000 were S.M.S. Sajjadi, Director, B.Omrani, R.M.Zaruri, R.Shirazi, F.Saber Moqaddam, M.Heydari, Archaeologists, A.Zahedi, O.Salari, H.Moradi, D.Momeni, M.Bagheri, T.Shahraki, M. Abedi, Excavation assistants and designers, and F. Foruzanfar, anthropologist. This is the first preliminary report of the first four years of excavations at the gmveyard of Shahr-i Sokhta. The detailed, technical and not analytical results, in Persian, of these first four years is presently in press (Gozareshha-ye Shahr-e Sukhteh l, Tehmn 1382/2003). The measurements and the number of estimated tombs of the gmveyard are still contradictory. In a report published two years after the beginning of the excavations the area of gmveyard was estimated at around 25 ha (Piperno & Tosi 1975: 123). Later, on another occasion, the area of the gmveyard was estimated at being 20 ha., with 22,000 graves (Piperno 1977: 138) and again 30 ha., with 20,000 graves (Piperno 1986: 257). Finally, in the latest publication, the area extends to between 20--25 ha. and the number ofgmves decreases to 18,000 units (Bonom et al. 2000: 495). However, according to the calculations made on the basis of new data obtained during the new series of excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta, and on the basis of gmve distribution and concentration in different parts of the gmveyard, it is now calculated between 31,000--37,500 gmves. Due to the large, extended area of the graveyard and the limited amount of excavated area, as Piperno has stated rightly, only a "modest Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 sounding" (Piperno 1986: 257) for a total of c. 4,850 sq.m. by both expeditions, all these statistics must be considered only as a temporary attempt to discover the full extent of graves at the site. During the following fifth and sixth campaigns of2001-2, a total of I ,000 sq.m. was excavated, yielding I 04 more graves. The results of these two campaigns are the subject of a second preliminary report on the graveyard. To keep the continuity, and to avoid any confusion, the typology of graves of the former expedition is kept, and the new type of grave is numbered as the ninth type of grave structure. The numbers of these type of graves are reiterated between six and eight, the real reason for this difference is due to the different registration system used for the collection of anthropological data. IUG.l400 with four human remains, is divided into 1400, 1400a and 1400bc, IUG.I404a-b with two skeletons, and IUG.I405, IUK.l615, IUA.I705 and IUF.2802, each one with one individual are unearthed catacomb graves. However, on this matter see Bonora eta/. 2000. Since the present paper is only a preliminary report on the new series of excavations, different aspects of the chronological distribution of graves are not included. Since these fragments are badly burned and damaged, and have not been analysed yet, this statement must be viewed with caution. It is probable that we have lost a number of graves with textiles as a result of great corrosion and decay. In an earlier publication (Piperno 1977: 135), seventeen goats are reported, which does not make a big difference. The exact number of skulls, as a result of the great amount of corrosion of the bones, is not very clear. Only five of them are in a good state of preservation. See Piperno 1979: 138. Regarding probable human scarifices at Shahr-i Sokhta, see also grave GTT. I 003 (Piperno/Salvatori 1983: 175). Although Piperno has reason to believe, we must be very cautious regarding the presence of a human sacrificial rite at Shahr-i Sokhta (Piperno 1979: 139). It is doubtful whether "grave" can be used for these piles of bones. Due to a mistake which occurred at the beginning of excavations in 1997, three graves, 1602, 1603 and 1604, originally located in square IUL are marked as !UK. We kept this system of numbering to avoid any further confusion. However, it must be noted that this does not interfere with the statistical configuration since squares IUL and !UK are both on the central part of graveyard, and next to one another. IX 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 3░ 95 All the percentages above 0.50% are upgraded to I and vice versa. Regarding the exact number of excavated catacombs, see above note 9. The chronological attribution of these graves is based upon relative chronological tables introduced by the Italian expedition on a different occasion. Since the study of the pottery of the graveyard is still in progress, the proposed dates are to be considered only as a temporary tentative date for the excavated graves. The total number of excavated graves, from both expeditions, is nearly 460, with respect to the 20,000-30,000 estimated graves. During the sixth campaign of the excavations at the graveyard, two small metal vessels, IUR.3208 and IPV.3400, were found. This information, has been kindly provided by Dr L. Costantini, Director of Laboratorio Bioarcheologia della Musco Nazionale d'Arte Orientale, and Is!AO of Rome, during his short visit to the site in the autumn of 2000. The study of bio-botanic and organic materials with the collaboration of the same laboratory is in progress. For a detailed description ofgrave goods, see below: Smallfinds. A study of the pottery vessels is still in progress. A considerable number of the signs are found at Shahdad (Hakemi 1997). In the collection of pottery vessels at Shahdad cemetery one group of signs has been decoded (ibid., 68), while some other marks are similar to the marks found at Shahr-i Sokhta (ibid., 65: fig. 43). During the last campaign of excavations at Shahdad, new marks have been found (Kaboli 1368). Regarding one specific group of new marks, Kaboli writes: " ... in one case, four vessels were deposed one inside another. The smallest bowl was marked by sign I, on the base of the second, and greater vessel we observed mark II, the third vessel was marked by Ill and the fourth vessel, the biggest one was marked by ". After examinations of vo!umes of each vessel, we found that the capacity of the bowl marked by II was twice that of bowl marked I , and that of the third vessel marked Ill, was three times the first one and finally bowl marked " four times the first bowl" (Kaboli 1368: 66-1 06). Though the preliminary report of the Italian excavations at the graveyard ofShahr-i Sokhta has not been published yet, extant data (212 burials with 33 seals) result in a much higher figure. An unpublished bifacial chlorite stamp seal from surface surveys in 1997 is similarly decorated A similar manufacturing technique is attested for a "Bactrian" compartmented seal, now kept in the Musee 96 3' 32 33 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 34 35 36 37 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Guimet, cf Baghestani 1997: 197, fig. I03. For an account on different manufacturing techniques cf. ibid., 14--17. Since no petrologic analysis have been undertaken, labels such as limestone or calcite should be used with caution. For an account on the composition of the slags from Shahri Sokhta, cf Helming eta/. 1991: 522-25. Susa: Tallon 1987: nos. 1230, 1231; Shahdad cemetery: Hakemi 1997: 278.654, Fig. Gv.2; Bactria: Pottier 1984: 39 Margiana: Salavatori 199514 (grave 37/25). For other ladles of this type, cf Costantini 1997: 45Б, Inv.no. 6353. For a full account of Shahr-i Sokhta's textiles from earlier excavations, cf Good 2000. For the preliminary results of the studies on the skulls and bodies, see Sa.ijadi & Foruzanfar 200 I. The first reported case of hydrocephalus was found during the 1977 campaign of the Italian expedition to Shahr-i Sokhta. In that year a collective grave with thirteen individuals, and three dog skeletons was unearthed (Piperno & Salavatori 1983: 10). This grave is dated to phase 8 of period I (Tosi eta!. 1984: 474). Among the skeletons of this grave, was a skull of a c. 13-year-old female (Macchiarelli /Passarello 1988: 35). According to a personal communications with Dr Macchiarelli, this skull had a larger volume than usual, mainly due to an enlargement of the central part of both parietal regions. Considering all metric traits, indexes and values, on the whole, the skull in discussion is ultrabrachycranic, ipsycranic, tapeinocranic, ipsyconchic and leptorrhyn. This individual was carefully operated on and survived trephination for at least 6 to 9 months. During the fifth campaign of excavations a third case of this illness was found at SS. This is important data, as we are now aware of at least three cases of this illness among less than 500 human skeletons found in this large graveyard. Bibliography Alexeev, V.P. and Debetz, G.F. 1964. Introduction to Kraniometrie (in Russian), Moscow. Amiet, P. 1983. "The Archaic Glyptics of Shahr-i Sokhta", in M. Tosi (ed.) Prehistoric Sistan I, ISM EO Memoirs, Rome, 199-210. -and Tosi, M. 1978. "Phase I 0 at Shahr-i Sokhta: Excavations in Square XDV and the Late 4th Millennium B.C. Assemblage ofSistan", EW28, 9-31. Anonymous 1987, Vergessene Stiidte am Indus. Frilhe Kulturen in Pakistan, vom 8. bis 2. Jahrtausend, Mainz. Baghestani, S. 1997. Metallene Compartimentsiegel in Ostlran, Zentralasien und Nord-China, Archaeologie in Iran und Turan I. Besenval, R. 1997. "Entre le Sud-Est iranien et Ia plaine de !'Indus: le Kech-Makran. Recherches archeologiques sur le peuplement ancien d'une marche des confins indoiraniens", Arts Asiatiques 52, 5-36. -2000. "New Data from the chronology of the Protohistory of Kech-Makran (Pakistan) from Miri Qalat 1996 and ShahiTump 1997 Field Season", South Asian Archaeology 1997, Vol. I, 161-87. Biscione, R. 1990. "The Elusive Phase of Shahr-i Sokhta Sequence", South Asian Archaeology 1987, Part I, Rome, 391-409. -, Salvatori, S. and Tosi, M. 1977. "Shahr-i Sokhta: L'abitato protostorico e Ia sequenza cronologica", in Tucci 1977. Sonora, G.L., Salvatori, S. and Soldini, A. 2000. "The oldest graves of the Shahr-i Sokhta Graveyard", South Asian Archaeology 1997, Vol. I, Rome, 495-520. Bulgarelli, G.M. 1998. "La lavorazione delle perle in pietre dure nel III millenio a.C: testimonianza da Shahr-i Sokhta (Sistan-Iran)", in Perle Orientali, Rome, 57-70. Casal, J.M. 1961. Fouilles de Mundigak, MDAFA 17. Ciarla, R. 1979. "The Manufacture of alabaster vessels at Shahri Sokhta and Mundigak in the 3rd Millennium BC: a problem of cultural identity", G. Gnoli & A.V.Rossi (eds.) lranica, Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, pp. 319-395. - 1981. "A Preliminary Analysis of the Manufacture of Alabaster vessels at Shahr-i Sokhta and Mundigak in the 3rd millennium BC", H. Heartel (ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1979. Berlin, pp. 45-{)3. - 1990. "Fragments of Stone Vases as a Base Material. Two Case Studies: Failakaand Shahr- i Sokhta", M. Taddei (ed.). South Asian Archaeology 1987. Rome. ISMEO, pp. 475-491. Collon, D. 1987. First Impressions. Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East, London. Costantini, L. 1977. 1/egni lavorati di Shahr-i Sokhta, Schede 8, Roma. Delmas, A.B. and Casanova, M. 1990. "The Lapis lazuli Sources in the Ancient East", M. Taddei (ed.). South Asian Archaeology 1987. Rome. ISMEO, pp. 493-505. Good, I. 1999. The Ecology ofExchange: Textiles from Shahr-i Sokhta, Eastern Iran. Unpublished PhD thesis, University ofPennsylvania. Hakemi, A. 1972. Catalogue de L 'Exposition: Lut. Shahdad ''Xabis ". Tehran. EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 1997. Shahdad. Archaeological Excavations ofa Bronze Age Center in Iran, translated and edited by S.M.S.Sajjadi, ISMEO Reports and Memoirs 27, Rome. Helmig, D., Hauptmann, A., Jackwerth, E. and Rehren, T. 1991. "Chemische und mineralogische Untersuchungen zur friihbronzezeitlichen Kupferverhiittung in Shahr-i Sokhta", JbZMusMainz 35 (2), 522-25. Jung, M. 2001. "L'attivita dell Istituto per I' Africa e !'Oriente (IslAO) in Iran nel campo della ricerca archeologica e della conservazione del patrimonio culturale", in Antica Persia, Rome, XVII-XIX. Jux, U. and Kempf, E.K. 1983. "Regional Geology of Sistan (Southwest Afghanistan)", in M. Tosi (ed.) Prehistoric Sistan. 1, Rome, .5--{)0. Kaboli, M.A. 1368 (1989). "Shahdad", in M.Y. Kiani (ed.), Shahrha-ye Iran (=Iranian Cities), Vol. 3, Tehran, 66-106. Kenoyer, J.M. 1998. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Oxford. Kohl, Ph.L. 200 I. "Reflections on the production of chlorite at Tepe Yahya: 25 years later", in Lamberg-Karlovsky (ed.) Excavations at Tepe Yahya, Iran 1967-1975, American School of Prehistoric Research Bulletin 45, 209-28. Lazzari, A. 1999. "Bibliography of Shahr-e Sukhteh (Sistan) 1968-1997", Journal ofHumanities, 5: I, 168-89. Lechevallier, M., Meadow, R.H. and Quivron, R.H. 1982. "Depot d'animaux dans les sepultures neolithiques de Mehrgarh, Pakistan", Paleorient 8/1,99-106. Macchiarelli, R. and Passarello, P. 1988. "Analisi paleodemografica comparative delta popolazione di Shahri Sokhta (Sistan, Iran, III millennio a.C.)", in Rivista di Antropologia LXVI, Roma. Mariani, L. 1989. "The Mounumental Area of Shahr-i Sokhta: notes from Surface Reconnaissance", South Asian Archaeology 1985. - 1990. "An Overview of the Architectural Techniques at Shahr-i Sokhta", South Asian Archaeology 1987, Vol. I, 411-26. Masson, V.M. 1988. Altyn Depe, University Museum Monograph 55, Philadelphia. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 - 97 Meriggi, L. 1971-74. La scrittura proto elamite I-III, Roma. Piperno, M. 1976. "Grave 77 at Shahr-i Sokhta: Further Evidence of Technological Specialization in the 3rd Millennium BC", EW26, 9-12. - 1977. "La necropoli", in Tucci 1977. - 1979. "Socio-economic implications from the Graveyard of Shahr-i Sokhta", South Asian Archaeology 1979, 123-39. - 1986. "Aspects of Ethnical Multiplicity across the Shahr-i Sokhta Graveyard", Oriens Antiquus 25, Roma. - and Salvatori, S. 1983. "Recent Results and New Perspectives from the research at the Graveyard ofShahr-i Sukhta, Sistan, Iran", Annali deli'Istituto Universitario Orientale 43, 2, Naples. - and Tosi, M. 1974. "The Graveyard of Sahr-e Suxteh (A Presentation of the 1972 and 1973 Campaigns)", in F. Bagherzadeh (ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran, Tehran. -and Tosi, M. 1975. "The graveyard ofShahr-i Sokhta, Iran", Archaeology 28, New York, pp. 186-197. Pottier, M.H. 1984. Materiel funeraire de Ia Bactriane meridionale de I 'Age du Bronze, Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations, memoire 36, Paris. Potts, D.T. 1981. "The potter's mark of Tepe Yahya", Pateorient, 107-22. Sajjadi, S.M.S. and Foruzanfar, F. 2001. "Preliminary Observations on Human Skeletal Remains from Shahr-i Sokhta ( Sistan Southeast Iran)", in Caucasus' Essays on the Archaeology of the Neolithic-Bronze Age. Dziebani (The Journal of the Centre for Archaeological Studies of the Georgian Academy of Sciences) Supplement VI, 67-87. Salvatori, S. 1995. "Gonur Depe. (Margiana, Turkmenistan): The middle Bronze Age Gravetard. Preliminary Report on the 1994 Excavation campaigns", Rivista di Archeologia, Anno XIX, pp. 7-37. -and Vidale, M. 1997. Shahr-i Sokhta 1975-1979: Central Quarters Excawitions. Preliminary Report. ISIAO, Rome. ~ Ill ~ IV " и==- =-- . .. и- Fig. 34. Alabaster vessels. +2 vessels 2 vessels - -ииии--ииии -.. иии-------' ? I vessel .. и и - - - - - - - - d. Number of vessels in the graves --и---~и - - - - ... и- ....?.. ии-иии и--и - ~ t~---= ~e::-:. :f 8 10 -и E~=[и~~~----и-~--~------ --=------и- ~- - - и - 22.~~- ut ::f ~!I~ b. Distribution of Alabaster vessels according to the period of occupation 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 r/J 1:!:1 t:J ,..., e'""" r/J > z r/J ,..., ?:' 1:!:1 "1::1 'Tj o > t- z ?:' e 0 '- -....J N EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 73 b.2501.2 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 2 I 0 e.1700.1 C;2513.4 ? I d.1416.4 I I L.....L-L-1 0 1 2 I I I 0 1 2 I 3 3 g.1400.26 ............... 0 t 2 3 j.1416a.1 i.2810.11 0 1<.1615.24 2 t I sI [[] n.1400.53 1.2903.2 0 I ? S I Fig. 35. Alabaster vessels. 1 2 3 I JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 74 2b. Concave cylinders. These are cylindrical mortars with a concave body, flat base and everted rim; IUG.l400/23, 53, IUG.l615/24. 2c. High-base cylinders. These are cylindrical mortars with a flat rim, straight body and high base, IUG.l400/6. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 2d. Cylindrical body. These are another type of simple mortars with everted rim, IUG.l4'00/27. SMALL FINDS by S. Baghestani 1. Seals Five of the 112 burials with objects yielded one seal each, i.e. two cylinder seals and three compartmented seals made of alabaster, limestone and copper/bronze (Table 5). The low percentage of burials with seals (c. 4.5%) differs significantly from that of previous campaigns by the Italian mission. 28 All graves are simple (IUK.1605, IUK.l610) or bi-partite pits (HRJ.l900, IUL.l505, IUA.l713), belonging to females, except for IUA.l713 (Fig. 36: a). The fact that seals are predominantly assigned to women should be related to their function as controllers of domestic food supplies, as already proposed by the author (Baghestani 1997: 149-52). The presence of seals near the femur of the skeletons of Graves IUK 1605 and IUK 1610 indicates that they were probably attached to their owners' belt and not to their arms or chests. Both cylinder seals are made of limestone, resembling some of the impressions found earlier on the site (Amiet 1983: 199-210; Amiet & Tosi 1978). The first seal from grave IUK.l61 0 is decorated with striated opposite triangles similar to the more sophisticated hut motif of Piedmont style seals and should thus be dated later than Early Dynastic I. The grave inventory, a richly painted pot and a pear-shaped beaker typical of period II, both corroborate this date (Fig. 36: a. 1610.5). The second cylinder seal (1900/3) (Fig. 36: a. 1900.3) is rather simply decorated with a zigzag line enclosed by three parallel rows, probably an abbreviation of the herringbone pattern. It is similar to a cylinder seal from Tell Braq and an archaic seal impression from Ur, dated to the middle of the third millennium B.C. (Amiet 1983: 200 fig. la; Collon 1987: 23 fig. 50). Furthermore, grave HRJ.l900 contained seven plain and painted Buff Ware vessels from Period II, an alabaster cosmetic flagon and a copper wand. Grave IUL.l505 yielded a square compartmented seal of white stone, probably alabaster, with a high arcshaped handle (Fig. 36: a. 1505.16). It is decorated with a voided cross, frequently attested for square and circular chlorite seals from Shahr-i Sokhta and is comparable with a seal impression from the Shahdad cemetery (Hakemi 1997: 672, Mb.l, no. 37 stamped marks). Two metallic compartmented seals from periods II and III, most likely made of copper alloys, are hitherto unparalleled. The openwork square seal IUA.l713/5 (Fig. 36: a. 1713.5) is heavily corroded and bears a tiny, broken arc-shaped handle at the rear. It is decorated with eight alternating openwork circles and triangles, TABLE 5. Glyptics. Inv.no. Material Type Dimension (em.) Shape, decoration 1610/5 limestone, white limestone, light grey cylinder seal 1: 3.5, d.: 1.2 cylinder seal 1:2, IUK.1610 (f) p. I-II Piedmont style zigzag pattern HRJ.1900 (f) p. I-II 1900/3 1505/16 alabaster 1605/17 Cu-br 1713/5 Cu-br Provenance, Date gender d.: 1.1 compartmente d seal compartmente d seal 1.7 X 1.7, t.: 0.3 1: 2.3, w.: 2.9, t.: 0.4 compartmente 2.7 X 2.5, t.: 0.2 d seal IUL.1505 (f) per. I square, cross voided standing bird IUK.1605 (f) per. III (bustard) square, rosette IUA.1713 (m) per. II L.: length; D.: diameter; W: width; Th.: thickness Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA symmetrically arranged around a central circle to form a rosette. Incised lines surround the circles and triangles. This seal proves that openwork appears on metallic compartmented seals at Shahr-i Sokhta as early as period II. On the other hand, it is a perfect example for common motifs of metallic and lithic compartmented seals. 29 Again the nearest parallel is a seal impression from the Shahdad cemetery (Hakemi 1997; Baghestani 1997: 277, figs. 360-61). IUK.1605/15 represents a fat standing bird with stylised plumage, probably a bustard (Fig. 36: a.1615.15). This seal is extraordinary both for its design and technique. Three thin metal strips, forming the outline, interior decoration and the feet, were soldered on a plaque, which was subsequently cut into shape to fit.JO 2. Beads Thirty-nine burials (or 35% of all) yielded 426 beads, either separately or as part of bracelets and necklaces, almost equally attributed to women ( 16 burials) and men (15 burials) and more rarely to infants (3 burials) (Fig. 37: a-j). The gender of five deceased with beads could not be identified. The majority of the burials are dated to periods I-II along with some rare examples from subsequent periods. Shahr-i Sokhta beads are made of a great variety of materials, especially semi-precious stones, i.e. lapis lazuli (Fig. 38: a), comelian, chalcedony, turquoise and probably jasper. Further materials are alabaster, limestone or calcite, bone, shell and terracotta (Table 6).3 1 Gold, also used for decorating lapis beads, is as rare as light green kaolin, glass paste and frit, which obviously were meant to replace more valuable turquoise beads. Except for lapis or turquoise, most semi-precious stones are available from nearby mountainous areas. According to petrologic examinations of waste samples from the 75 site, lapis was imported from ancient quarries in the Pamir Mountains, Sar-i Sang in Badakhshan (Afghanistan) and the Chagai Hills in Pakistan (Delmas & Casanova 1990: 502). Ancient turquoise mines have been reported in the vicinity ofNeishabur on the eastern slopes of the Elburz Mountains and in the Kyzylkum area (Tosi 1974, 148 ff.). Beads of comelian, a reddish coloured variety of chalcedony, are most often recorded (155 items), followed by beads of limestone or calcite (124 items), lapis (54 items, 6 with a gold strip), chalcedony (41 items), turquoise (8 items) and jasper (1 item) (Fig. 39: b). Earlier excavations of the cemetery yielded different distribution figures, especially for periods II-III, when turquoise beads prevailed (Tosi 1974: 157). Except for a bracelet with twelve shell beads, other materials such as jasper, kaolin, glass paste and terracotta were more rarely utilised (Fig. 39: b). Only two genuine gold beads of ovoid shape were found with a female burial in IUA.1703. The third example from the infant burial IUL.1515 was plated with gold. It was found together with a cylindrical lapis bead, decorated with a thin strip of gold. Similar lapis beads with one gold strip were found in IUF.2809/1, whereas the examples from IUK.1607 are framed by two gold strips. Most beads were produced locally as demonstrated by large amounts of wasters from the Craftsmen Area in squares EWK /EWP. This is also proven by grave HTR.2701, which contained a "hoard" with lithic drillheads, blades and unfinished beads, certainly belonging to a craftsman (Fig. 38: ~). The beads from the cemetery can roughly be divided into circular and flat types according to the section. Eleven types have been distinguished so far. Annular beads of different sizes are often found singly, while cylindrical and semi-conical beads appear most frequently in pairs ;:tS elements of necklaces. When TABLE 6. Beads. Inv.no. Material Item 1300/11 bead stone, grey 130112 2 beads stone, red and blue 1404 a/ 45 bead stone, black 1408/10 necklace, 21 beads 1410/9 necklace, 54 beads 10 comelian, 10 limestone., 1 chalcedony 22 limestone, 15 comelian, 8 lapis, 8 chalced., 1 turquoise D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 3.4 3.7 1.1 1 Provenance, gender Period IUC.1300 (f) I IUC.1301 (m) ? IUG.l404a(m) IV IUG.1408 (m) IV IUG.1410 (i) I 76 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Inv.no. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 1414/1 Item bead Material Stone D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 3.5 Provenance, gender Period IUG.l414 (m) I IUG.l414 (m) I IUG.l416 (f) I 1414/10 necklace, 20 beads 10 cornelian, 10 limestone 1416/5 bead Brown stone 151111 3 beads 1 carnelian, 2 limestone IUL.1511 (i) ? 151311 2 beads Turquoise, chalcedony IUL.l513 (m) ? 1515/7 5 beads IUL.1515 (m) I 1516/9 3 beads 1 gold plaited, 3 lapis (1 w. !fold strip), 1 chalcedony turquoise, cornelian, limestone IUL.l516 (m) II 151717 necklace, 24 beads IUL.l517 (m) II 1519/9 bead 12 carnelian, 12limestone or calcite beige alabaster 1520/8 bead 1601/8 1604/4 3.8 1.1 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.7 3.4 1 IUL.1519 (m) I beige alabaster 3.3 1.1 IUL.1520 (f) I bead beige alabaster 3.3 1.2 IUK.l601 (m) II bead red stone 3.4 1 IUK.l604 (f) I 1605/20 bead cornelian 3.1 1.5 IUK.l605 (f) III 1607/4 5 beads IUK.l607 (m) II 1610/4-5 2 beads 2 carnelian, 3 lapis (2 w. gold strips) pinkish carnelian, black stone IUK.l610 (f) II? 1613/3-4 2 beads IUK.l613 (f) II IUK.l615 (m) II IUA.l702 (f) II? IUA.l703 (f) II? 1615/ 56--57 2 beads 2.8 1.6, grey and buff terracotta 3.5; 1.8 1; 0.8 veined chalcedony, dark green jasper 1 cornelian, 4 bone, 1 chalcedony 52 cornelian, 8 limestone, 8 lapis, 3 chalcedony, 2 gold 0.6; 1.5 1702/3 6 beads 1703/6 necklace, 73 beads 1716/11 bead stone 1717/8 bead 1718/6 1 -; 3.5 2.9; 4.7 3 1.1 IUA.l716 (f) I terracotta 3.5 1 IUA.l717 (f) II bead stone 0.4 1.6 IUA.l718 (m) II? 1901/1 bead stone HRJ.l901 (f) ? HRJ.l902 (-) ? GTS 2000_(5, 1 f, 1 m, 2 i, 1 nd) . IBP.2300 (f) II 2 turquoise, 1 chalcedony HYE.2501 (-) II? 3 beads limestone, frit, chalcedony llYN .2600 (-) II 2701/8 3 beads HTR2701 (-) II 2800/7 3 beads limestone, chalcedony, unfinished turquoise, lapis, white stone IUF.2800 (m) II IUF 2801 (f) I IUF.2809 (f) ? 1902/1 bead stone 2000/6--8 3 beads turquoise, glass paste 2300/4-6 3 beads chalcedony, glass paste, kaolin 2501/3 3 beads 2600/4 2801/5 necklace, 91 beads 2809/1 necklace, 14 beads 46 cornelian, 44 limestone, 1 lapis 14 lapis (3 w. gold strip) 0.7-0.8 av. 0.3 0.5-0.6 OA-0.7 ? EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Item Inv.no. Material D. (em.) Th. (em.) L. (em.) 77 Provenance, gender IUF.2810 (m) Period II 2810/13 necklace, 49 beads 2811/3 bead 13 comelian, 14 limestone, 13 lapis, 8 chalcedony, 1 turquoise veined alabaster IUF.2811 (m) II? 2811/5 necklace, 17 beads 3 lapis, 14 chalcedony IUF.2811 (m) II? 2812/2 necklace, 12 beads shell IUF.2812 (i) II 3.4 1.1 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 D.: diameter; Th.: thickness; L.: length combined, semi-conical beads form a hi-conical element, resembling elongated hi-conical beads of a larger size (type 7), which mostly occur as single beads. Flat triangular, conical, lozenge-shaped and lentoid beads (types 8-11) are more rarely found. They either appear as single beads (2501/3) or as central parts of necklaces (2810/13). Fifteen, or 40%, of the burials contained a large single bead of the annular type (diameter: 2.8-3.7 em., thickness: 1-1.6 em.). They are made of stone, alabaster or terracotta and are found in connection with both male and female burials of all periods. In some cases (IUG.1414, IUF.2811) they appear together with necklaces. Salvatori and Vidale labelled comparable objects from the Central Quarters as spindle whorls, an identification to be excluded for extant examples, which show no traces of abrasion at the central perforations. (Salvatori & Vidale 1997: 77, fig. 249, 1-6). In sum, this evidence indicates that these "beads" were not made for decorative purposes, but for a specific function, perhaps apotropaic or for a still unknown funerary rite. They were mostly found in the pelvic area or near the femur. The example from burial IUG.1404a was still threaded on to a 10 em. long wooden stick (1404 a/45), whose function is also unknown. Fifteen, or 40%, of the burials contained two to six beads, most frequently found near the head, pelvis, femur or at the feet of the deceased. In some cases they were inside vessels, which suggests a dedicatory rather than ornamental function. Only ten or one-quarter of the burials contained necklaces, predominantly belonging to male deceased. The high percentage of male burials with necklaces (6 items) suggests a dedicatory function, too. Necklaces consist of 12 beads (IUF.2812) to 91 beads from the female burial IUF.280 1. There is a clear predilection for combining red (cornelian) and white (limestone or calcite), sometimes associated with single beads made oflapis, turquoise, chalcedony and even gold (1408/10, 2801/5). Lapis beads are frequently combined with whitish translucent chalcedony (281115). 3. Metal objects Very few metal objects were recovered; they were mainly cosmetic wands, pins, weapons and implements. Most of them are greenish corroded, indicating copper as the initial ore3 2 (Table 7). 3 .1. Mirrors Two mirrors in the shape of simple and slightly concave discs with flattened edges were found in female burials from periods III-IV (1400/58 and 1605/14). Mirrors of this type are widely attested at Iranian sites, e.g. Susa and the Shahdad cemetery, but are also known from Bactria (Northern Afghanistan) and Margiana (Turkmenistan). 33 IUC.1400/58 was found inside a circular wooden box (1400/57), lying in a basket. 3 .2. Wands and pin Metal wands and a pin were recovered from eight burials, dating to periods II-III (Fig. 36: c). Four wands belong to females, aged 18-50 (IUG.l400, IUK.l605, IUA.1705, HRJ.1900), one to a child (IUG.1408) and two to males, aged,.45-57 (IUG.1405, IUK.1615). All were accompanied by a small lithic or clay flagon, which served most likely as a cosmetic container. The wands vary from 12.5 em. to 18 em. in length with a maximum diameter of 0.5 em. The pin from HMY.1800 is much shorter and slightly thicker. Five types have been identified, including a pin, on the basis of its similarity to one of the wand types. Pin 1800/3 ends in an S-shaped tip, much resembling a needle (type 1). The first of four wand types has an additional detached hook-shaped protrusion. Wands with flat lozenge-shaped tips are most often recorded, including an indented variety (1615/55), 78 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES II? 181M Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 . ? . 1!105.16 1606.17 1713.5 a. Seals ~~ ии' ~; :~ 2000.5 - D 130LI 2302.2 16148.4 ~ 2513.8 2513.10 Cl~]~ b. Bones y 2 3b 3a 4 c. Wands/Pins Type L 18003- Type 2. 19003- Type 3a. 1400.6111405.23- Type 3b. 1615.55- Type4. 1605.15- Type 5. 1408.7 Fig. 36. Seals, bones and wands/pins. 79 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 c. 1517 d. 2811 b.2810 a. 2801 '$""\ f /~ g. 2800 J I ~ " f. 1515 j.2300 i. 2510 h. 1511 e.1703 Fig. 37. Necklaces and beads. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 80 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 81 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA TABLE 7. Metal objects. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Inv.no. Item Mat L. (em.) W.(cm.) Th. (em.) D. (em.) Provenience, gender Period. 1400/58 mirror culbr 0.2 8.8 IUG.l400 (f) 1605/14 mirror culbr 0.2 7.5 IUK.l605 (f) III 1400/61 wand culbr 12.5 0.4 IUG.l400(f) IV 1405/23 wand culbr 18 0.5 IUG.l405 (m) III 140817 wand culbr 0.3 IUG.l408 (i) IV 1605/15 warid culbr 12.7, tip: 1.1 x2.5 16 0.3 IUK.l605 (f) III 1615/55 culbr 14 0.6 IUK.l615 (m) II culbr Max. 8.7 0.3-0.5 IUA.1705 (f) III 1900/3 wand, fragment wand, fragment wand culbr 17.7 0.3 HRJ.l900 (f) II 1800/3 pin culbr 8 0.6 HMY.l800 (-) II 1614 a/ 2-3 2 daggers, fragmentary tip of a triangular blade triangular blade 3 rods, fragment culbr - IUK.1614 a (m) II culbr 4.8 IUA.1708 (i) II culbr 20 IUF.2810 (i) II culbr 3.7, 3.8; 4.4 HYE.2504 (-) I? 1705/53 1708/11 2810/10 2504/5 max. 6 which resembles a stepped cross. Similar pins are frequently attested at looted "Bactrian" burials (Pottier 1984). Type 4 is also indented, but has an oval outline. It compares to an example from Altyn Depe, found in a Namazga IV period burial (Masson 1988, pl. XXXVII, 5). 3.3. Weapons and implements Metal weapons are extremely rare and were only recovered from three burials, all dating to period II. The best preserved example is a long triangular blade with a straight tang from grave IUF.2180, belonging to an 11year-old child. The infant burial IUA.l708 yielded a second blade, from which only the tip survived. Comparable blades come from the Gonur cemetery, Khurab and Susa, all dating to the Ur ill period (Pottier 1984: 14). Two daggers from the second male burial in grave IUK.1614 disintegrated when they came in contact with the air and were too fragmentary for restoration. Three rod fragments from grave HYE.2504, of the transitional period 1-11, are the only metal objects of this period recorded so far. Two of them have a flattened or globular tip and may have been used for bead making. 0.4 IV 4. Lithic objects 4.1. Flagons (Fig. 40: a-d) Seven burials, dating to periods 11-IY, contained small tubular, square or hom-shaped flagons, and were accompanied by copper/bronze wands. The flagons are usually attributed to females, but also appear in male (2) and infant (1) burials. Comparable, though larger objects from Turkmenistan and Bactrian sites, were identified as lamps on the basis of chemical analysis of the contents, a lead-based subs4ltlce (Pottier 1984: 38f., fig. 37, 261--64; pl. XXXI, 261.264). Shahr-i Sokhta's flagons are too small for such an analysis, but they certainly served as containers for cosmetic substances, i.e. kohl. All flagons are made of alabaster, chlorite or clay and have a separate lid with a small cylindrical perforation in order to fit the wand. The lid is usually made of the same material, except for the example from grave IUG.l408, which has a black chlorite trunk and a lid of white, veined alabaster. Three types of flagons are attested, covering the whole chronological range. The first and apparently earliest type consist of flagons which are almost JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 82 TYPE MATERIAL p GRAVE 1.Annular Alabaster, carnelian, terracotta 0 = == 0 10 2. Cylindrical Chalcedony, kaolin, lapis lazuli, =0 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 5. Globular == I иII Bone. carnelian, limestone lUG 1408/10,1UG 141019.1UG 14141110. IUL 151619. IUL 151717.1UA 170213.1UA 170316, IUF 260115. IUF 2810/13 1-11 IV lapis lazuli, chalcedony, lUG 141019.1UL 151517, IUA 170316.1BP 2300/4, HYN260014 0 =o limestone, gold, gold plated =и=и II II Frit, glass paste IBP 230015, HYN 260014 Alabaster, chalcedony, limestone lUG 1406110.1UL 151111.1UL 1515fl.IUK 1607/4. HYN 2600/4, IUF 281115.1UF 2810113 6. Elongated ovoid =o I иII IV --- - ? 7. Biconical ..., lUG 1411l/9,1UL 1515fl, IUL 151619. IUK 1607/4. IUA 170213. IUA 170316.1BP 2300/6. HYN 2600/4 IUF 260115,1UF 2809110,1UF 2810/13 lapis/gold, turquoise 3. Conical 4. Ovoid IUC 1300/11,1UC 130112.1UG 14048145, lUG 1414/1, lUG 141411,1UG 1416/5, IUL 151619.1UL 151919, IUL 152018. IUK 1601/8, IUK 1604/4, IUK 1605120. IUK 161014, IUK 1613/4, IUK 1615156, IUA 1702/3. IUA 170316.1UA 1716/11.1UA 1717/8,1UF 281113 Chalcedony, jasper lUG 141019.1UL 151311, IUK 1615157. HYE 250113, IUF 2810113.1UF 261115 1-11 B. Flat triangular ~ 0 lapis lazuli IUA281115 Chalcedony IUF 2810/13 II 9. Flat conical 40 II 10. lozenge-shaped 0 t Chalcedony, turquoise IUL 151311, IUA 170316 Turquoise HYE250113 II 11. Flat lentoid ? 0 II a. Preliminary typology of Shahr-e Sukheteh beads 180 155 160 140 124 120 100 80 60 20 ... 41 40 ft 1 1 ~ ~ 2 3 i i i... i= ~ 1 1 2 0 ~ i I' ...lJ ID i i 4 - ~.:..;. 1? 13 ? )> ~ (f &> ~ iIIi' "0I╗ .a'2 ... ?? c:0 m. ? i . ::1 !{ t ??? b. Materials used for bead making Fig. 39. Beads. I' ::1 i ;иg i9. r- f Д, ? 0 ::1 '< Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Fig. 40. Flagons 83 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 84 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA 85 TABLE 8. Flagons. Inv.no. Item Material L. (em.) W. (em.) D. (em.) Provenance, Period Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 gender 1400/56 flagon 1405/17 flagon 1408/9 flagon alabaster, white alabaster 10.8 2.2-4.3 8.7 lUG 1400 (f) max.4 IV lUG 1405 (m) III lUG 1408 (i) IV IUK 1605 (f) III 1605/16 flagon chlorite, lid: alabaster alabaster 1615/54 flagon alabaster 7.4 max. 4.2 !UK 1615 (m) II 1705/54 flagon clay 5.8 2.1-4 IUA 1705 (f) III 1900/7 flagon alabaster 7 2.7-3.5 HRJ 1900 (f) I-II 1900/8 Lid alabaster 1 3.5 HRJ 1900 (-) I-II 4.2, lid: 0. 7 4.8 cylindrical and decorated with small, incised circles (1900/7). Flagons of the second type are more sophisticated and appear in period III. They are of conical shape and may be square (1605/16) or circular in section (1705/54, 1408/9). A variant with a slightly everted foot appears during the latest phase of Shahr-i Sokhta (1400/55-56). Most of these flagons have only a small cavity, except for 1705/54, which is hollowed out. Flagons of the third type are attested as early as period II. The cones with a curved tip remind us of an animal's hom (1405/17, 1615/54). All three types are attested from burials and domestic contexts at Altyn Depe (periods Namazga IV-V), the first type dating to the end of period V (Masson 1988: pl.XLI). Conical and tubular flagons are also recorded from illicit excavations in Bactria (Pottier 1984). 4.2. Lithic objects and tools (Fig. 38: b, d, e, f, g) Lithic objects and tools, predominantly for domestic and industrial purposes, were recovered from eight graves, dating to periods I-II. Two small flat stones from the male burial IUA.1718 and the infant burial HYE.2511 probably served as grinding slabs, perhaps for cosmetic substances. This is especially noticeable with the stone from the first burial, which has a very smooth surface. An oval stone with a shallow carved out cavity (1713/8) (Fig. 38: g) certainly served as a grinding slab for similar purposes. The rod-shaped object with triangular section and rounded ends from HYI.2903 may likewise be identified as a pestle. Plain cubical objects were found in burials IUL.1519 and HYI.2901 (Fig. 37: f). The frrst made of volcanic rock and weighing only 75 grams, has one evenly smoothened surface and may have been used for polishing skins or comparable soft materials. Grave 1.2-2.5 HYI.2901 yielded a second lithic object of spherical shape with unknown function, presumably a sling stone. Besides unfinished beads and wasters, burial HTR.2701 contained a set of five minute, partly broken cylindrical drill-heads made of jasper with ascending diameters (19-26 mm.) and several intact or fragmentary flint blades with triangular section, all well-known lapidary tools. Its inventory compares to that of the gemcutter's graves G.12 and G.77 from earlier excavations (Piperno 1976: 9-14, fig. 2). The infant burial IUA.1708 yielded three further triangular flint blades. 5. Clay and terracotta objects Except for terracotta beads, very few other clay objects were recorded, all of which date to periods I-II. Grave IUL.1500 (period I-II) yielded a unique terracotta object resembling a stylised pomegranate with a tiny hole at the tip, which probably served as a perfume bottle (Fig. 38: h). Most probably, it belonged, to the female IUL.1500 a, who was accompanied by two infants. The function of th~bi-conical clay object from the male burial IUB.1201, which resembles an unfinished chalice, is uncertain. A small rectangular hole is preserved in the centre of its cavity, probably for holding a stick. Further items are a spindle whorl from the male burial IUK.1615 and a reel from the twelve-year-old infant's burialiUA.1700. 6. Bone objects (Fig. 36: b) Five burials from periods I-II contained bone objects, predominantly long flat sticks with sharpened ends 86 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES TABLE 9. Bone objects. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Inv.no. Item L. (em.) W. (em.) Th. (em.) Provenance, gender Period 1301/1 rod 16.5 1 0.1 IUC.1301 (m) ? 1614 a/4 rod 8.5 1 max. 0.5 em. IUK.1614 a(-) II 2000/5 7.7 1.4 0.4 GTS. 2000 (-) II 2302/2 rod, fragmentary rod 18.3 1.4 2513/8 awl 10.5 2513/10 edge of a lid 6.5 0.4 IPB.2302 (i) I-II Dm:0.7 HYE.2513 (-) I 1.5 HYE.2513 (-) I 1.7 (IUC.1301, IUK.1614a, GTS.2000, and IPB.2302). The sticks vary from 8.5-18.3 em. in length with a maximum width of 1.4 em. (Table 9). Their precise function is uncertain. A rod from the Italian excavations in grave IRD.311 was used for engraving or painting pottery (Piperno 1979: 132 f., fig. 7). Comparable ivory rods with geometrical decoration were found in the "priests' tomb" cf Masson 1988 at Altyn Depe, resembling an item from Mohenjo-Daro, which probably served as a game stick (Masson 1988: 65, pl.XIX, item 2; Anonymous 1987:273, fig. C 79c; Kenoyer 1998). The awl from HYE.2513 compares to those from the Eastern Residential Area and Central Quarters and is probably cut out of the ulna of a sheep or goat (Salvatori and Vidale 1997: 76). 7. Wooden burial objects Wooden objects are rare, but remarkably well preserved (Table 10). The majority was found in catacomb IUG.1400, a period IV collective burial with two females (IUG.1400, 1400a), a 50-60 year old male (IUG.1400b) and a 6--8 year old child (IUG.1400c). The most peculiar object is a circular mirror box (IUG.1400/57-58), consisting of a conical base with recessed edge, which fits a similarly shaped lid (Fig. 41: h). The mirror box lay inside a circular basket together with an intact, rectangular wooden comb with a crescentshaped handle (IUG.1400/62) (Fig. 41: g). It is matched by a fragmentary example from grave 1404, lying next to a male (Fig. 41: f). Comparable combs have already been found in the Eastern Residential Area and the Central Quarters (Tosi 1969: 365 f, figs. 207-8; Costantini 1977: 36--39; Salvatori & Vidale 1998: 76, fig. 243, 1-5). An ivory comb with incised circles from the Harappan layers of Miri Qalat (period IV) in Kech-Makran corroborates this late date (Besenval1997: 27, fig. 37). Further remains from the female burial IUG.1400 include a deep conical ladle with a short handle, lying inside a plain buff ware pot (IUG.1400/10), which clearly identifies it as a utensil for pouring liquids (Fig. 41: e). It bears a small suspension hole at the top, still containing a small wooden nail. The ladle is heavily riddled with holes, probably caused by termites.3 4 A perforated wooden cone from the same grave, which resembles a spindle whorl, is equally marked by insect damage (IUG.1400 b-c/10). It bears a TABLE 10. Wooden Objects. Inv.no. Item L. (em.) W. (em.) Th. (em.) D. (em.) 8.1 Provenance, gender Period 1400/55 ladle IUG.1400 (f) IV 1400/57 mirror box 2.9 17 IUG.1400 (f) IV 1400/57 lid 2.5 16 IUG.l400 (f) IV 1400/62 comb 9.3 4.1-8.2 IUG.1400 (f) IV 1404 a/ 73 8.5 6.5 IUG.1404 a (m) IV 1404 a/45 comb, fragmentary rod 1400 b--c/10 conical lid 10 1 2 3.5 IUG.1404 a (m) IV IUG.1400 b-e (m/i) IV EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA longitudinal perforation, still containing a small wooden nail. The cone served as a stopper for a small buff ware jar (IUG.l400 b-c/9), similar to clay stoppers from domestic contexts. A comparable wooden stopper was found in a kitchen in square RYL (Tosi 1969: 366, fig. 218; Costantini 1977: 27-29, Inv.no. 6183). Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 8. Basketry (Fig. 41: b-e, d; Figs. 10: b, d; 12: a-e) Seven graves yielded wickerwork products, well enough preserved to reconstruct the manufacturing techniques. Furnishing the grave with a rush mat, on which the deceased were laid, appears to be one of the peculiarities. of Shahr-i Sokhta's funerary customs. A different utilisation is attested from the Shahdad cemetery, where mats covered the deceased (Hakemi 1997: 62 f.). Shahr-i Sokha's rush mats were found in four burials, dating to periods II (HTR.2700, HRJ.1900) to IV (IUG.l400). While the mat from grave HRJ.l900 survived only in traces, the example from the female burial IUG.1400 is almost intact, measuring 130 x 50 em. (Fig. 10: d). The plaited mat is brownish, discoloured by the soil. Impressions of a similar mat were found on the floor of the so-called burial chamber of priests at Altyn Depe (excavation 7, room 7) (Masson 1988: 67, fig. 22.2). Circular baskets of different sizes appear more often and are attested throughout periods II-IY. The largest example (IUG.l400 b-c/13) has a diameter of33 em., and the fragmentary basket 140511 was preserved to a height of 12 em. Out of seven graves, one (IUG. 1414) contained up to five baskets, all attributed to a male. The infant buried nearby was equipped with the only wickerwork saucer recorded so far (IUG.1404 b/21 ). One of the females buried in grave IUG.l400 had four baskets, two of which contained vessels, mortars and cosmetic objects (IUG.1400/25, 1400/54). Baskets are usually made of twisted reed cords, which were curled up and fixed with thin strings of straw to form the bottom and the trunk. Altyn Depe's "chamber of priests" yielded the impression of a similar basket (Masson 1988: fig. 22.3). 9. Textiles and leather (Fig. 10: a-c) Fifteen graves yielded textiles, predominantly in a very poor state of preservation. In fact, most textiles 87 disintegrated, when getting in contact with the air. Except for some fragments from the richly furnished infant burial IUA.1707, the remaining examples are brownish, discolored and too carbonised for reconstruction.35 Given the state of the coarse texture found in the graves, we can assume that most probably the majority of funerary textiles served as shrouds. In some cases infants were wrapped inside a shroud, while adults were usually laid on a shroud and covered with two separate pieces of cloth. The texture of the cover is occasionally more delicate than the flooring cloth. In burialiUF.2802 the fragments were attached to the skull and the jaws of the male, and in burial IUL.1500 they still covered the femur of the infant. In one case at least the cover may have been decorated with beads (female burial IUA.l705). The only possible evidence for leather comes from the craftsman's grave HTR 2701. A small bag made of a reddish substance, containing a series of unfmished beads and wasters, disintegrated while opening the grave. Chemical analyses will have to prove the exact nature of the skin. 10. Conclusion The remarkable preservation of the small fmds from the burials helps significantly to elucidate the intricate funerary customs of Shahr-i Sokhta throughout the existence of this important site. The association of cylinder and compartmented seals with female burials compares well with the results of earlier excavations. This confirms that the females had an important role in the economical control of the city, and consequently had a rather high social position. With regard to the beads from periods I-11, a significant difference is noticeable in comparison to periods II-III. Locally available semi-precious and ornamental stones such as comelian and limestone prevail in contrast to periods II-III, when imported turquoise became predominant. Imitations of turquoise with light green kaolin and glass paste underline the popularity of this semi-precious stone in periods I-II. Later, it was much more easily available, which is demonstrated by the expansion of trade relations with the north and growing prosperity at Shahr-i Sokhta during period III. JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES 88 Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 SKELETAL REMAINS (1997-99): PRELIMINARY OBSERVATION (Fig. 42: a-b) by F. Forouzarifar From a total of 149 human skeletons found in 131 graves, thirty-seven, 25%, are males, thirty-three, 22%, are children, and twenty-nine, 19.5%, individuals are female. The remaining skeletons, fifty individuals, or 33%, could not be examined because of strong caries. Here only burials found during 1~7-99 are examined (Table 11 ). Skeletal remains are divided into three main groups: 1. Complete skeletons, 2. Incomplete skeletons, and 3. Not examinable skeletons. The last group consists of decayed and carious bones (IUL.1508, NAB.2400, HYN. 2600), or broken and very fragmentary bones, that at the present time cannot be studied in order to obtain useful data (HYN.2602, HTR.2702). Sometimes the data obtained is limited to the age, sex or stature of the individuals (IUB.l200, IUG.1415, IUL.1514, IUA.l704, HYE. 2503). Considering the above-mentioned factors, a total of twenty-eight skeletal remains were distinguished and grouped as not examinable samples, IRS.l1 00, IRS.llOl, IRS. 1102, IUG.1401, IUG.1402, IUL.1502, IUL.1508, IUL.1514, IUA.1701, IUA.1707, HMY.1800, HRJ.1901, HRJ.1902, GTS.2000, IPB.2301, IPB.2301a, IPB.2301b, NAB.2400, NAB.2401, HYE.2500, HYE.2501, HYE.2504, HYN.2600, HYN.2601, HYN.2602, HTR.2701, HTR.2702, HTR.2703a. In addition, on the basis of available data, we could not distinguish the sex of ten individuals. Considering the two factors of sex and age, skeletal remains are divided ino five groups, i.e. male, female, child, newborn and foetus. From a total of sixty-six adults, thirty-two female and thirty-four male, fifty-nine cases were examined. Skeletal remains of these individuals yielded, due to good grave condition and adequate skeletal preservation, good possibilities for examination. Table 11 shows the details of the graves and their individuals, including the number, state of preservation of the skeletons, and the age and sex of these individuals. For classification and interpretation of skulls fourteen indexes (Alexiev and Debetz 1964), and for bodies twenty indexes, were taken into consideration. 36 Remains of 1 to 12-year-old human skeletons (children, infants, newborn and foetuses) are classified as a unique group of designated children. As can be seen in Table 12, almost half of twenty-one children are buried together with an adult, most likely their father or mother. Among these samples, eight of them are newborn or foetuses, in three cases they are related to abortion, and in five other cases the newborn died before completing his first year oflife. All foetuses and infants, except for one, IUL.150 1, are buried together with an adult, most likely their father of mother. This last foetus was buried together with a female, from which only the lower part of body was found, together with a fragment of radius bone (Table 12). Traces of burning are visible on the remains of some skeletons. In the multiple burial, GTS.2000, skeletal remains of a young female, two children and two young TABLE. 11. Skeletal remains. Grave No. State of preservation of skeletal remains Skeleton Skull Tooth 1200 - 1201 not complete I - Age Body - 1300 examined not examinable not complete not complete not examinable examined examined complete 1301 examined examined 1400 examined 1400a not complete 1400b not complete 1400c 1403a Sex Age Calculated Approx. Age 40-45 - - M ? 55-60 53.6 F 30-35 36.9 M examined complete examined examined complete 16-18 - F examined examined not complete 45-50 43.7 F - - not complete 50-56 - F - - - 6-8 - Child examined examined examined not examinable complete 13-14 - F EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-I SOKHTA Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body - Sex - F Infant - Child 45-55 59.1 ? - M Child 30-40 - F 07-Aug - Child 50-55 53.7 M 1.5 Inf. Inf. 45-50 - F 30-40 - M 25-30 - M 25-30 - M 45-55 - M 40-45 - M 30-35 - F 10-12 - Child 30-40 - F complete complete not examinable complete 35-40 -2 2-3 42.2 F Inf. Inf. - 55-QO 25-30 Fetus 59.9 34.8 30-35 -1 - F Newborn Newborn - Newborn 1.5 - Inf. 40-50 - F -1 - Newborn - 1404b - 1405 1406 examined 1407 - 1408 - 1408a - 1409 - 1410 not complete not examinable not examinable examined complete examined not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete not complete not examinable not examinable examined not complete not complete 1411 - - - 1412 - - - 1413 - - - 1414 - -1 - 1414a - - - 1415 - - - 1415a - - - 1416 examined examined examined 1500 1500a 1500b examined examined examined - - - - - - examined examined examined examined - Age Approx. Age Age Calculated 45-50 1404a - 89 not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable complete ISOla 1503 1504 1505 1506 examined examined examined examined examined - - - 1507 - - - 1509 - - - 1510 - - - complete complete complete Not examinable Not examinable Not examinable not complete 1511 - - - not complete - - - M M 90 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body Age Age Approx. Calculated Age Sex 1512a examined examined examined complete 25-30 - F 1512b examined examined examined complete 45-50 53.7 M 1513 - - - 30-35 34.8 M 1514a - - - 10-12 - Child 1515 - not complete not complete not examinable not examinable not complete 12-14 - M 1516 - - not complete not complete 25-30 - M 1517 not complete examined examined not complete 45-50 57.8 M 1518 - - - 30-40 - F 1519 - - - 35-40 - M 1520 examined examined examined not examinable not examinable complete 1521 - - - 1600 - - - 45-40 33.6 F 40-45 - ? -5 - Child 35-40 - M 30-40 43.7 F 3-4 - Inf. F 1601 examined examined examined not examinable not examinable complete 1602 examined examined examined complete 1603 not complete examined not complete not complete 1604 examined examined examined complete 20-25 - 1605 - - - complete 20-25 - F 1606 examined - - Fetus - Fetus 1607 examined examined examined not examinable not complete 35-40 - M 1609 examined examined - not complete 35-40 - M 1610 examined examined examined complete 25-30 - F 12-14 - ? - - F 35-40 - F 35-40 - M 40-45 43.7 F 45-50 51.5 M Newborn 1700 - - - 1702 - - - 1703 - - - 1704 - - - 1705 - examined not complete not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete 1706 not complete examined examined not complete 1708 - - - - - 1709 - - 35-40 - M 1710 - not examinable complete - - not complete 10-11 - Child 1900 not complete - - not examinable 35-40 - F EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA Grave No. Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 Skeleton State of preservation of skeletal remains Skull Tooth I Body 91 Age Age Approx. Calculated Age Sex examined examined complete 18-20 - F - - - not complete 5-7 - Child 2000d not complete not complete not complete not complete 10-11 - Child 2100 - - - 30--40 - F 2300 not complete examined examined not examinable not complete 53-60 61.6 F 2300a - - - 8-10 - Child 2302 - - - 2502 - - - 2503 - - - 2505 - 2506 - 2507 2000b examined 2000c - - Newborn 40-45 - ? 50-55 - ? - not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable complete 2-3 examined not complete 25-30 - Inf. examined - examined - 2-3 - Inf. 2508 - examined - not examinable not complete 40--45 - M 2508a - examined - 20-22 - F 2700 - - - 40-50 - ? 2703 - - - 50-60 - ? 2703b - - - 8-10 - Child 2800 not complete not complete examined 50-55 50 M 2801 - - - 30-35 - F 2802 - - - 35-40 - M 2803 - - - "12-13 - F 2804 - - - - - Newborn 2806 examined examined examined 25-30 - F - M not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete not examinable not examinable not examinable not examinable not complete M 2807 - - examined complete 35-40 2808 examined examined examined not complete 45-50 2809 - examined examined not complete 22-25 - F 2810 - examined examined not complete 35-40 - M 2811 examined examined - not complete 45-50 - M 2812 examined - - not complete 7-8 - Child M JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 92 and sexually undetermined individuals were found. Most parts of the skeletons were burnt, their colour turning to brown. In another multiple burial, IUL.l500, belonging to a 35-40-year-old female and two infants, 1500a, 1500b, traces ofbuming are obvious. In the case of the skeleton of a 30-35-year-old corpulent male, IUC.l30 1, traces ofburning can be seen on fragments of the vertebral column, maxilla and frontal bone. Another case of is seen on the costal cartilage of a 60-year-old female, IPB.2300, the oldest individual ever found at Shahr-i Sokhta. Enlargement at the level of the central part of both parietal regions of a 4 year old girl's skull shows some signs of a hydrocephalic illness. This is the second case ofhydrocephalus at Shahr-i Sokhta.37 Almost all distinguished illness cases are due to hard physical activities or hard environmental conditions. A total of twenty cases oflumbar vertebral osteo-arthritis is present (IUG.l400b, IUG.l410, IUG.l412, IUL.l503, IUL.151 0, IUL.1512b, IUL. 1517, IUK.l609, IUK.l61 0, IUA.1703, IUA.1705, IUA.1706, IUA.1709, HYE.2502, HYE.2503, HYE.2508, IUF.2801, IUF.2807, IUF.2808, IUF.2810 and IUF.2811). Individuals above 30 years were plagued by this illness. Another common illness at Shahr-i Sokhta was the compression of the vertebrae at a younger age, IUG.l412, HYE.2502, IUF.2801, or deformation of vertebrae (compression, degeneration: IUG.1414, IUL.l519, IUL.l5121, IUA.1703, and IUF.2800). At a younger age this illness is due to the hard physical labour conditions at Shahr-i Sokhta. In male inhabitants it starts to appear around their thirtieth year and in females at 30 to 35 years of age. This indicates the equal participation of both sexes in everyday hard labour. Sex, stature and age of sixty-six adult individuals above twelve years, thirty-four male, thirty-two female, TABLE. 12. Approx. Age: New-born, Infants and Children. Grave No. Age Note 1400b 7 Buried together with 3 adult individuals 1403b 11 Buried together with a 13/15 year old female 1404b 3 Buried together with a 45-50 year old male 1406 - Buried individually 1408 7.5 Buried together with a 50 year old male 1409 1.5 Buried individually 1415a 11 Buried together with a 30-35 year old female 1500a 1.5 Buried together with a 37.5 year old female and another child 1500b 2.5 Buried together with a 37.5 year old female and another child 1501a Fetus Buried together with and adult female 1506 Infants Buried individually 1507 Newborn Buried individually 1507 3.5 Buried individually 1509 1.5 Buried individually 1511 Infant Buried individually 1514a 11 Buried together with an adult individual with undetermined sex 1600 5 Buried individually 1603 4 Buried individually, probably Hydrocephalus 1606 Fetus Buried individually 1708 Newborn Buried individually 2000c 6 Buried together with three adults and one child 2000d 10.5 Buried together with three adults and one child 2300a 9 Buried together with a 60 year old female 2302 Infant Buried individually 2505 2.5 Buried individually 2507 3 Buried individually 2703b 9 Buried together with two adults 2812 9 Buried individually EXCAVATIONS AT SHAHR-1 SOKHTA 93 100% 87% 90% 1 _/ 70% Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 !ill% AO% 10% / I 7U 1% 1% 5 6 2% 2% 0 3 0% I L I I ------' 2 a. Percentage of number of skeletons in single Grave ---------27% -- /27% 25%~--/--r---% 20%~--/~-15%+-----------------~------------------------ /" 10%+-----/___,.....____-----.,..-_ 5%+----------~~--------------------------------------------------------- / 0%+------------r----------~------------~----------~----------~----------~ ~ ~ C ? F M b. Percentage of the inhumed (Fe= foetus, Inf. =infant, C =child,?= unidentified individual, F =female, M =male) Fig. 42. Percentage of burials Downloaded by [Australian Catholic University] at 03:22 25 October 2017 94 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES and eight newborn/infants and twenty-one children were examined. The stature of individuals are calculated on the basis of nine standard indexes. According to these calculations, the average stature of males is 162.7 em. The range of male stature starts from a very short height,150-155 em., to extremely tall, 190+ em., but the majority are between 158-175 em. Thus males could be classified as fairly short individuals between 160 to 165 em. The range of stature of females starts with extremely sllort, 140--145 em., to rather tall individuals, 165-170 em. The tallest females are between 150 to 165 em. The difference between average male and female stature is 8.1 em. The average age of individuals is calculated on the basis of the mean table, according to which, the death age for males is 26--53 and females 26--39 years. The oldest male, IUL.1503 and the oldest female, IUC.l300 and IPB.2300, were between 55-60 years old, while the middle average ofthe age of males was 39.2 and those offemales was 33.2 years. Notes For a detailed geological set up of the region see Jux and Kempf1983. Although British visitors to the region visited the site in the eighteenth century, its real archaeological discoverer was Sir Aurel Stein, the great Anglo-Hungarian explorer (Stein 1928). For almost ten years, an Italian expedition excavated this site. M. Tosi, was head of the expedition for several years and had an important role in presenting and introducing the importance of this site to the world of Iranian archaeology. Efforts and contributions of scholars such as M. Piperno, S. Salvatori, G. Bulgarelli, R. Biscione, L. Costantini, and other collabomtors of the expedition, were no less important. Thanks to their work, there now exists suitable and reliable information regarding different aspects of the society of Shahr-i Sokhta of the fourth and third millennium B.C. The bibliogmphy of Shahr-i Sokhta, regarding different aspects of archaeological research, has been compiled in different languages, mainly in English and Italian, and is very extensive. A list of publications on this site is available in Lazzari 1999. The correct translitemtion of the name of this site is: Sahr-e Suxteh, written also as Shahr-e Sukhteh. To continue with the tradition introduced by the Italian Expedition to the Middle Eastern archaeological litemture, we follow this form of transliteration. 4 The new series of excavations at Shahr-i Sokhta is currently carried out under the auspices of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO). The author would like to thank H.E. S.M. Beheshti, Vice-minister of the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance of I.R. of Iran and Geneml Director of the ICHO, for his support of this expedition. My warmest thanks also go to Mr J. Golshan, deputy director of the same organisation who, in addition to supporting the expedition on different occasions, made available all the facilities for this research. Mr N.N. Cheghini and Dr M. Azamoush, former and present directors of the Archaeological Service of ICHO, in addition to their support of this expedition, organised all the necessary facilities during the excavations. I would like to remember the kindness and interminable efforts of Mr Alireza Khosmvy, head of the local ICHO office in Zabol for easing the difficult working and living conditions of the members of the expedition. I would also like to thank KR.S. Sajjadi for his translation of this text into English. Finally I feel duty bound to mention the encouragement, indefatigable support and suggestions of my wife, Angela Di Giovanni Romano, in completing this work Members of the expedition during 1997-2000 were S.M.S. Sajjadi, Director, B.Omrani, R.M.Zaruri, R.Shirazi, F.Saber Moqaddam, M.Heydari, Archaeologists, A.Zahedi, O.Salari, H.Moradi, D.Momeni, M.Bagheri, T.Shahraki, M. Abedi, Excavation assistants and designers, and F. Foruzanfar, anthropologist. This is the first preliminary report of the first four years of excavations at the gmveyard of Shahr-i Sokhta. The detailed, technical and not analytical results, in Persian, of these first four years is presently in press (Gozareshha-ye Shahr-e Sukhteh l, Tehmn 1382/2003). The measurements and the number of estimated tombs of the gmveyard are still contradictory. In a report published two years after the beginning of the excavations the area of gmveyard was estimated at around 25 ha (Piperno & Tosi 1975: 123). Later, on another occasion, the area of the gmveyard was estimated at being 20 ha., with 22,000 graves (Piperno 1977: 138) and again 30 ha., with 20,000 graves (Piper
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